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1THE LAUNCHING OF A NEW REPUBLIC
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4Constitutional Gov’t Takes Shape
5No office of the new gov’t aroused more suspicion than the office of the presidency. Many feared that the powers of such office would make the person a virtual king. Only George Washington’s reputation calmed the fears of an unlimited executive.
6Since the Constitution only mentioned the powers of the executive branch in a limited form, Congress was able to determine the organization and accountability of what became known as the cabinet (set of advisors).
7The Cabinet consisted of four departments: Sec. of Treasury (Alexander Hamilton); Sec. of State (Thomas Jefferson who would resign due to conflict in 1794); Sec. of War (Henry Knox); Attorney General (Edmund Randolph-who would be appointed as Sec. of State to replace Jefferson in 1794.
8Congress attempted to pass a bill that would not allow the president to remove/dismiss cabinet officers w/out the Senate approval just as it took Senate approval to appoint them, but it was defeated due to John Adams’ tie-breaking vote (this piece of legislation would return in 1867).
9The failed attempt by Congress now set the executive and legislative branches as equal partners in this new gov’t and reinforced the president’s power to make policy.
10Washington set the tone for the first presidency as one of limited interference proposing only a few laws and vetoing only two pieces of legislation in his eight years.
11Washington’s puritanical idealism followed the path of least resistance; trying to avoid favoritism and understand both sections of the country--north and south and believing that the job of the citizenry was to elect well-educated, politically sophisticated men who could make laws in the people’s best interest. 
12He did not really like the pomp of the office, but endured its political necessities setting the precedent for two terms as enough for anyone to endure.
13CONGRESSIONAL LIMITATIONS AND ACTIONS
14The Constitution did not go far in advising Congress on how to establish a judicial system under the Supreme Court, nor in giving direction in the protection of a citizen’s rights.
15Congress was prohibited by the COnstitution from passing ex post facto laws (criminalizing previous legal actions and then punishing those who had engaged in them) and bills of attainder laws (proclaiming a person’s guilt and stipulating punishment without a trial).
16In Order to remain in good graces with the states, many of which had their own judicial systems already and feared a federal court system, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789 which established a federal district court in each state that operated according to local procedures with the Supreme Court having final jurisdiction
17In Response to the cry for a bill of rights that had come from the states during ratification of the Constitution, Congressional leaders like James Madison drafted a bill of rights to guarantee basic personal liberties to all American citizens.
18In the Bill of Rights, Madison insisted that the first eight amendments guarantee personal liberties, not strip the national gov’t of any necessary authority, while the ninth and tenth, reserved to the people or to the states the powers not allocated to the federal gov’t under the Constitution. (p. 198 for the first 10)
19The Bill of RIghts was ratified by the states in Dec. 1791, and the federal judiciary began to establish its authority. In a case Chisholm vs. Georgia, the court ruled that a state could not be sued in federal court by nonresidents. In response to this, Congress moved to overturn this by passing the 11th amendment which was ratified in 1798. It said, private citizens could no longer use federal courts to sue another state’s gov’t in civil cases.
20HAMILTON”S AND FEDERALIST POLICIES
21Alexander Hamilton was born in the Caribbean and had immigrated to New York in 1772 where he entered the army, served on Washington’s staff and gained enormous influence over Washington. His background of being born outside of the United States afforded him the luxury of insensitivity to American Concerns towards centralized authority. TO some he appeared handsome, vain, and thirsting for power embodying the dark forces that would lead the Republic to it’s doom.
22Hamilton’s beliefs centered around his fear of a war with Britain or Spain or both, and since COngress had not assumed the debt under the Confederation gov’t, the national credit abroad at home and abroad was weak. Thus, the gov’t could not finance a war if one broke out.
23He believed that the American people were incapable of displaying consistent self-sacrifice and virtue and that the only means of survival for the gov’t was to cultivate politically influential citizens through a straightforward appeal to their financial interests.
24As Sec. of the Treasury, Hamilton’s first task was to see to the credit of the nation. In his report, he began a system of policies that would strengthen the credit of the nation, enable it to defer its debt, and entice wealthy investors.
25He first recommended that the federal gov’t “fund the national debt”-in other words, raise the $54 million dollars needed to honor the debt by selling an equal sum in new securities-where investors would chose from a combination of federal “stock” and western lands. (2) Second, he proposed the federal gov’t pay off the state debts remaining funding these obligations along with the national debt-this would certainly help his state of New York which still owed money. (3) He exhorted the gov’t to pay off the money owed to Europeans with the sale of western lands which was $12 million. Taking this away from the original $54 would leave $42 million whose interest could be paid from customs duties on imports and an excise tax (a tax on domestic products transported with in the nation’s borders). (4) He also said that the money owed to American citizens be made a permanent debt, thus urging the national gov’t not to attempt to repay the $42 million principal but instead keep paying interest to people wishing to hold bonds as an investment.
26This policy of a continual debt would be a means of upholding the national credit at a minimal expense without paying off the debt and would protect the savings of wealthy bondholders through conservative policies with competitive interest rates.
27Hamilton’s policies provoked controversy because those who had held 3/5ths of the debt certificates issued by the COntinental Congress had sold them out of necessity to wealthy speculators who now stood to gain huge rewards at the expense of others. This policy generated resentment because it rewarded rich profiteers while it ignored the sacrifices of wartime soldiers and ordinary citizens.
28Hamilton’s policy of assumption also ran into controversy between those representatives of states that had paid their debts versus those who still owed. Some, like Madison, argued that to allow residents of the laggard states to escape the heavy taxes needed within a state for it to pay off its debt while other had not had that luxury was to reward irresponsibility. And southern hostility almost defeated the idea of assumption had it not been for Hamilton’s shrewdness to strike an agreement with Virginia to move the capital into its region, which would proffit Virginia as the crossroads of the country, and preserve its position as the nation’s largest states. In return, Virginia helped secure the passage of assumption by the south.
29In the end, Hamilton’s plan on Public Credit passed by Congress worked and brought in support from EUropean Investors who bought some bonds at 10% above face value.
30Hamilton’s greatest controversy and one that eroded his relationship with Thomas Jefferson brought Washington to a place of having to choose sides involved his bank idea.
31Hamilton proposed the gov’t create a national bank that raise $10 million through a public stock offering and private investors could pay for the shares by paying 3/4ths of their value in gov’t bonds. In this way the bank would capture a significant portion of the funded nation’s debt and make it available for loans while receiving a substantial and steady flow of interest payments from the Treasury Department.
32He argued the bank would cost the taxpayers nothing and benefit the nation as a safe place for the gov’t to deposit its revenue, help make inexpensive loans to the gov’t when taxes fell short, and relieve the scarcity of hard cash by issuing paper money that would circulate; it would also regulate the practices of state banks and provide much needed credit to expand the economy.
33Many denounced this as a scheme dangerous so as to allow a small number of elites special power to influence the gov’t. Thus, many, like Jefferson, saw this as a potential for legislative corruption if members of Congress owned bank stock.
34Some argued the bank was unconstitutional, citing no place in the “written form” where COngress could create a bank. They stated that a failure of COngress to adhere to a “strict interpretation” of the COnstitution might oppress the states and trample individual liberties, as Parliament had done. They felt that strict limitations were the best way to prevent the U.S. from degenerating into a corrupt despotism (tyranny; autocracy).
35Congress approved the bank barely, and Washington turned to his two advisors Jefferson and Hamilton as to whether to sign the bill or veto it. Jefferson distrusted the bank as did his southern counterparts and thus, he was considered one hwo supported “strict interpretation” of the Constitution, believing that to step beyond those written bounds would leave no end in sight.
36Hamilton argued Washington to sign the bill citing Art. 1 Section 8 Clause 18 --the necessary and proper clause of the Constitution which argued for Congress ability to make laws it deemed necessary and proper, and that only those that were unconstitutional were those forbidden to the national gov’t. Thus, Hamilton became a proponent of “loose interpretation” of the Constitution, which, in the end, Washington agreed with and signed the bill.
37Hamilton’s legacy was one that was successful but divisive to the country. His arrangements for rescuing the nation’s credit brought enormous gains for speculators, merchants and other “monied men” of port cities. His actions brought industry, commerce, and shipping to the Northeast. And those who were attracted to Hamilton’s policies called themselves “Federalists.” In actuality, these “Federalists” favored a highly centralized National gov’t instead of a truly “federal” system with substantial powers left to the states. THese groups dominated the public opinion in the middle colonies and in South Carolina.
38In sections of the country where Hamilton’s plan offered less benefits, his plan brought resentment where it seemed the gov’t was rewarding special interest; hence, the south was negative toward Hamilton’s policies, and his policies offered little to the west where agriculture promised to be exceptional if the country could get exportation opportunities through New Orleans.
39In the end, the resentment felt by southerners, westerners, and those who saw his policies as benefiting only the eastern “monied men” --some mid-Atlantic citizens-began to bring these groups together in a political coalition later to be known as the “Republicans.”
40Hamilton’s admiration was toward the efficiently run factory. He believed that a country of manufacturing would offer employment opportunities, emigration, expand technology, and grant men a greater scope to which they could use and apply their talents and in the end, create a more demand for the things that could be grown. For Hamilton, the surest roads to national order and wealth traveled down the path of technology and managerial discipline.
41In contrast to Hamilton’s view, Jefferson saw the country as a place of landowning that represented republican liberty and virtue and envisioned land as the key to prosperity and liberty for all.
42One issue that Hamilton’s policies ignited was the Whiskey Rebellion-brought on by Hamilton’s argument that Congress enact an excise tax on domestically produced whiskey. He argued that this tax would not only distribute the financing of the debt, but would improve American morals and cause them to drink less. Since many of the farmers in the west could not ship their goods through New Orleans, it was more profitable to convert the corn into whikey for the traveling east. This tax would equal 25% of the retail value and virtually wipe out the profit. The law would also require any trial to be held in federal courts, which were in the east, and would cost the farmers time and money to appear, much less pay any fine. Congress approved the ta that led to several incidents such as the tarring and feathering of an excise agent near Pittsburgh.
43In September 1794, 100 men attacked a U.S. Marshall serving 60 delinquent taxpayers notices to appear in court. A crowd burned the chief revenue officer’s house, and opened fire with federal soldiers assigned to protect him. The ensuing riot burned buildings, assaulted tax collectors, and chased gov’t officials out of the region. Washington and Hamilton agreed that if allowed to continue and go unpunished, this would bring corresponding actions in other places. Washington then led the militia part of the way to the Appalachians where opposition quickly eroded, and he then left Hamilton to carry out the arrest--which resulted in 150 with two to sentence to death, but Washington pardoned them.
44The Whiskey Rebellion and the government’s ensuing reaction reinforced the idea that protests to unpopular laws in a manner as had been before would not be tolerated. THerefor, it set limits on public opposition through the use of federal authority.
45THE U.S. AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS
46The primary source of friction in American life in 1793 centered around disagreements over foreign affairs. The new government entered the international arena where European tensions were exploding with the pro-French revolutionary ideals that frightened Europe’s monarchs and aristocrats.
47The Spanish revival in the North American continent was centered around the policy of giving the Native Americans alcohol and poorly made guns which would require the Native Americans to use Spanish gunsmiths to have them repaired. This way the Spanish would make peace with the Native Americans that threatened the settlements in New Mexico. This was the Spanish policy to counter European rivals for North American territory and influence, and Spain sent its ships north to California and then turned west to the Asian shores. They also responded to Russian trade and American expansions into the Pacific trade by encouraging Mexican immigration into California. However, this immigration failed and the colony was only sustained by a chain of religious missions, presidios (forts), and a few large ranches. Also, the Franciscan missionaries sought to convert the Indians to Catholicism and civilize them by imposing harsh disciplinary measures and putting them to work in the vineyards.
48Meanwhile, Russian traders crossed Siberia and began to force the Aleut hunters to trade sea-otter pelts with them, and spread deadly diseases with them while they went as far south as northern California.
49By the 1770s, Britain’s James Cook and others revealed the wealth of the RUssian merchants made from the pelt trade so AMerican and British maritime traders began plying the northwestern coastal waters in the 1780s and trading with China. They then returned with Chinese luxuries of silk and sold them to affluent consumers who prized them for their exotic designs and fine craftsmanship.
50Spain also sought to win the allegiance of the newcomers’ who moved into the Mississippi Territory by offering citizenship. In 1789, Spain unexpectedly opened NEw Orleans to American commerce, although exports remained subject to a 15% duty.
51Spain also continued to bribe well known political figures in Tennessee and Kentucky, among them a former general on Washington’s staff and so the gov’t anxiously admitted these states in hopies of strengthening their residents’ loyalty to the United States. Washington also tried to weaken the Spanish influence by neutralizing the Creeks.
52In 1790, the Creeks signed the Treaty of New York which permitted american settlers to remain on lands in the Georgia Piedmont, but it preserved the creek territory against U.S. expansion. 
53However, Washington adopted a harsher policy toward the British allies in the Ohio Valley. Washington sent the troops to deal with them, but military action failed when Gen. Harmar and Gen. Arthur St. Clair were defeated.
54Finally in 1793, Sec. of War Henry Knox worked out a benevolent policy toward the Indians by having the gov’t formally accept the Indians’ title as secure except by the Indians themselves.
55Congress enacted laws prohibiting trespassing on Indian lands, punishing crimes committed there by non-Indians, outlawing alcohol and regulating trade.
56Knox thought that his “civilization policy” would have the Indians joining AMerican society and making additional land available for whites. However, even though most Indians were receptive to EUropean material goods, few were willing to give up their traditional ways and assimilate into an alien culture while many whites weren’t eager to integrate Native Americans into their society.
57With two defeats of U.S. forces in the Northwest Territory, Washington’s western policy was in a shambles while the Spanish convinced the Creeks to renounce the Treaty of New York.
58The French revolution began in 1789 and Americans remained fundamentally sympathetic to the revolutionary cause as the French wrote a new constitution and repelled invading armies from Austria and Prussia.
59White southern slave owners were among France’s fiercest supporters. Why? Because the British involvement reminded the southerners of how they courted their own slaves during the revolution, they felt that the British had intentionally sparked the bloodbath and would do the same in the South, therefore, anti British hysteria ended South Carolina’s loyalty to the Federalists policies.
60Northerners were repelled by the bloodshed in France, and New England mostly militantly Protestant elites and middle-class citizens detested the French gov’t’s punishing of its opponents and substituting the adoration of Reason from the worship of GOd.
61Also, in the north, the merchants growing antagonism toward France reflected the fact that mostly all of the nation’s merchant marine operated from the northern ports and the country’s foreign trade was with Great Britain. THese merchants feared an alliance with France would provoke British retaliation against commerce, and they argued that the UNited States could win valuable concessions by demonstrating friendly intentions toward Britain.
62Southerners viewed Americans’ reliance on British commerce as a menace to national self-determination and wished to divert most U.S. trade to France. They felt that British imports be reduced through steep discriminatory duties. Federalists felt that an adoption of this policy would mean certain war in six months.
63After war on Britain and Spain in 1793, France actively tried to bring the United States into the conflict and thus, dispatched Edmond Genet to the United States who set about mobilizing support for France and signing up volunteers for the American Foreign Legion.
64Washington declared a policy of neutrality towards the situation in France and Europe, but followers of George Rogers Clark and Elisha Clarke of Georgia began drilling to take the Spanish garrisons at New Orleans and St. Augustine. However, this defiance of Washington’s neutrality policy brought few willing to fight for free and both expeditions eventually disintegrated.
65However, privateers flying the French flag by the summer of 1793, were at seas seizing more than 80 British vessels and towing them to U.S. ports where French consuls sold their cargoes at auction.
66In response, George Washington closed all ports to the privateers and requested that the French recall their ambassador while George III had the Privacy COuncil issue secret orders confiscating any foreign ships trading with French islands in the Caribbean. The Royal navy then seized more than 250 AMerican vessels and began inflicting the second indignity of impressments of crewmen on U.S. ships.
67American ships were then stopped and British subjects and U.S. citizens were then impressed as the king’s sailors.
68Meanwhile, in 1794 Washington launched three initiatives to deal with the Native American problems in the Ohio River area. (1) First, he authorized General “Mad Anthony” Wayne to negotiate a treaty with the Shawnees and their Ohio Valley allies, (2) Chief John Jay went to Great Britain to work out a treaty, while (3) Thomas Pinckney went to Spain.
69Gen. Wayne led 3500 troops deep into Shawnee territory where he burned every village within his reach. On Aug. 20, 1794 the Battle of Fallen Timbers occurred where Wayne defeated the Native AMericans two miles from the British fort Miami.
70In 1795, Wayne forced the Shawnees and 11 other tribes to sign the Treaty of Grenville which opened up Ohio and a portion of Indians to white settlement.
71Wayne’s success helped John Jay win a “controversial” treaty with the British giving access to West Indian markets for small AMerican ships and the British promising to withdraw troops from AMerican soil, but in exchange, he bargained away the U.S. rights to load cargoes of sugar, molasses, and coffee from the French colonies. This treaty left the British free to violate American neutrality and to ruin a profitable commerce by restricting AMerican trade with France. However, the treaty did not end impressments of sailors.
72Slave owners were resentful that Jay had not obtained compensation for slaves taken away by the British army during the Revolution. Despite its unpopularity, Jay’s treaty defused an explosive crisis with Great Britain and ended Britain’s post-Revolutionary occupation of U.S. territory.
73This treaty also stimulated an enormous expansion of American trade where British governors in the West Indies proclaimed their harbors open to U.S. ships.
74Meanwhile, Thomas Pinckney triumphed in Spain with the Treaty of Sasn Lorenzo which won westerners the right to unrestricted duty-free access via the Mississippi River and Spain agreed to recognize the 31st parallel as the United States southern boundary, to dismantle all fortifications on American soil and to discourage Indian attacks against western settlers.
75The Emergence of Political Parties
76By the end of Washington’s second term (1796), politically conscious Americans had split into two hostile parties; Federalists and Republicans as instruments for advancing their ideals and ambitions.
77Events in France polarized AMericans along regional and ideological lines: Federalists trembled at what they had seen in mob rule and guillotines while many artisans in the major cities flew the French revolutionary slogan of “liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.” With Genets actions and those volunteers wanting to join the fight, many Federalists feared what was to come.
78For the Federalists, democracy meant “gov’t by the passions of the multitude.” They argued that ordinary white males who were voting should not be resented with choices over policy during elections, but should simply vote on someone based on their merits.
79In the mid-Atlantic and southern states, Republicans argued differently that corruption was inherent in a powerful gov’t dominated bya  highly visible few, and they stress that liberty wuld only be safe if power were diversified among virtuous, independent citizens.
80Many would have seen the ideas of republicanism as being non-supported by southerners, especially those who owned slaves. However, many southerners especially those who owned slaves. However, many southerners advocated the ideals of Republicanism as long as it meant equality for white men only.
81Ambition drove many men like Jefferson and Madison to arouse the concerns of ordinary citizens, advocating that if the Federalists would be held accountable to the public, they might think twice about enacting measures opposed by the majority. Yet, Jefferson’s frustrations at being overruled at every turn by Hamilton and Washington prompted his resignation in 1973; he was replaced by Randolph in 1794.
82Yet opponents to Federalist policies found a voice in the newspapers of the day--like the National Gazette where they began to organize into Democratic (or Republican) societies.
83Federalists disagreed with these societies stating that they were emotional appeals to ordinary people fearing that these would eventually grow into revolutionary organizations.
84By 1794, Washington openly identified himself with the Federalists and followers of Jefferson began attacking the ideas of the Federalists with a new “Republican party” that won several seats in the House of Representatives that year signaling the beginnings of a broad-based party.
85The media of the day which was the newspapers that in both camps became libelous and irresponsible with their writings, cheapened the quality of public discussion through character assassinations. THey charged the Republicans were plotting to turn the nation over to France, while the Federalists were charged with favoring a hereditary aristocracy; all of which whipped up a national debate of emotion and distrust.
86The Republicans charged the Federalists had become a group bent on enriching the wealthy at the taxpayers expense, claiming that the citizens worth could be measured in terms of their money.
87Washington decided to retire after two terms and, with the help of Hamilton, gave a farewell address that warned Americans of the dangers of becoming: (1) entangled with foreign affairs; (2) showing partiality for one nation over another. TOgether, he and Hamilton had evoked a vision of an American isolated from foreign intrigue and power politics, which would remain until the 20th century. He also warned the nation of the dangers of political parties destroying the nation.
88As Washington left under a barrage of criticism, the divisions between the parties hardened into a two party system.
89Meanwhile, in 1796 the election of John Adams as President was challenged by southerners who supported Thomas Jefferson as the Republican candidate. As immigrants became the targets for Republican recruiters, the party attempted to win the crucial swing states of Penn. and New York with their pro-French and anti-British rhetoric. In the end, Jefferson lost the election by 3 electoral votes; the Constitution did not foresee the emergence of political parties, and thus, the person with the most votes was to be the President and the second most votes, the Vice-President. This would later be changed by the 12th Amendment which created the use of two separate ballots-one for President and one for Vice-President. Essentially until that Amendment went into effect, the election of 1796 saw a President of one party and a Vice-President of another.
90Adams was unable to unify the country because he was more rational, reserved in personality, more theoretical than practical and inflexible on issues he believed in.
91From 1798-99, Adams’s attention was directed toward American problems with France. The French interpreted the Jay Treaty as an attempt for America to help the British in their war with France. In response, France seized American ships carrying goods to British ports, and plundered more than 300 vessels within one eyar and hanging every American caught on a British ship.
92Adams, hoping to avoid war, sent a peace commission to Paris to meet with French foreign minister Charles de Talleyrand. However, due to the gov’t still in flux, Talleyrand refused to meet with the commission and isntead sent three other agents, known as X, Y, and Z to meet where they offered the U.S. agents a bribe in exchange for peace. Americans responded with outrage, and Adams refused to entertain such a notion.
93This offer caused issues for the pro-French Republicans who tried to repair the damage with opposition to Adams’ defense measures and excusing French behavior. Federalists, however, rode the tide of opposition and patriotism, routing the Republicans in the 1798 elections.
94U.S. and French vessels went to “Quasi-War” in the Caribbean when COngress armed 50 vessels that seized 93 French privateers vessels within two years with the loss of only one vessel.
95Due to the hysterical fear of war and the Federalists desire for an army in case of a “civil war,” Congress ordered the expansion of the military. Meanwhile, due to rumors that were based upon knowledge of French assistance to Spanish persons in the west meant to undermine loyalty to America, Federalist leaders in Congress set about passing a series of controversial laws meant to protect national security.” In reality, these laws were aimed at controlling the Republican party and its growth.
96These acts were (1) The Alien Enemies Act which outlined procedures to determine whether the citizens of a hostile country posed a threat to the U.S. as spies of saboteurs. If so, they were to be deported or jailed. (2) The Alien Friends Act which authorized the president to expel any foreign resident whose activities he considered dangerous. SInce this law did not require proof of guilt, Republicans claimed it was aimed at deporting prominent immigrants who were critical of the Federalists--and were joining the Republican party. (3) The Naturalization Act--which increased residency requirements from 5 to 14 years for U.S. citizenship with the last five continuous in one state. (4) The final act, the Sedition Act, the only one enforceable against citizens of the U.S., forbade an individual or group “to oppose any measure(s) of the U.S.--wording that could be interpreted to ban any criticism of the party in power. Another clause made it illegal to speak, write, or print any statement about the president that would bring him “into contempt or disrepute.” John Adams saw his friend, Ben Franklin’s grandson go to jail for the violation of this part of the act. Most argued this law interfered with free speech and the federalists wrote it so that it expired in 1801-such that it could not be used against them should they lose the next election. 
97As the election of 1800 neared, four/five Republican newspapers were charged with sedition and these cases were to be heard by juries. Although the Federalists never meant to make martyrs out of these, but to silence their opposition during the election, just the opposite happened. Vocal criticism of the Federalists erupted in the states of Virginia and Kentucky during the summer of 1798 where with militia who mustered their arguments and nerves to step forward and sign petitions that denounced the Alien and Sedition acts.
98Meanwhile, as it seemed the prophecies of the opponents of the Constitution had forewarned a decade prior, by 1798, all three branches were controlled by the Federalists and it seemed that individual liberties were no longer protected. Thus, James Madison and Thomas Jefferson anonymously wrote two manifestos, resolutions called Kentucky and Virginia which promoted the ideas of “states rights.” They argued that since the state legislature had never surrendered their right to judge the constitutionality of federal actions, they retained an authority called “interposition.” This policy allowed a state to declare a federal law it deemed objectionable “null” and “void.” Although none of the other 12 sates approved, ten disapproved, and these resolutions resounded the tension and disunion existent in 1800.
99With the election of 1800, where Federalists attacked Jefferson’s religious ideas as him being “anti-God” and where Republicans attacked John Adams as attempting to be “King John”, Americans chose Jefferson by 8 votes over Adams. But before Adams could leave office,he was able to send an envoy to France to work out a peace-which did not come to pass until 1801- and with the threat of war subsiding, Americans found more to fault the Federalists over- adding 10 million ot the national debt-that they did to put faith in for another term.
100Jefferson’s election was not “Clear cut.” The election was deadlocked in a tie between Jefferson and Aaron Burr, and so the Constitution’s failure to foresee political parties affected the outcome of the electoral college. Thus, the House of Rep. had to make the decision for the choice of president, which led to six days worth of ballots with not result-not until Alexander Hamilton, Burr’s rival from New York, threw his support for Jefferson and Jefferson won by 1 vote.
101ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL CHANGE
102The nation’s first 12 years under the new Constitution transformed the lives of Americans.
103For centuries the backbone of Europe and now the former colonies had been production in the household setting with the basic means as the “patriarchal family”-where the male was the head with the vast majority being small farms and consisting of the owner and his family.
104In the aftermath of the Revolution, the hosueholds in the most heavily populated regions began to change with many, especially in the mid-Atlantic states, directing their surplus to meet the demands of urban customer while poorer farm families, especially in New England, finding less lucrative way to produce for commercial markets.
105In some artisan households, some supplied others the materials needed for the finished products, while numerous other enterprises emerged employing men and women to satisfy the demands. Behind these businesses were aggressive businessmen who invested the profits in factories, ships, gov’t bonds, and banks to stimulate business ventures.
106Many organizations sprang up and promoted the ideas of immigrants from Europe-like Samuel Slater-to come to America and pioneer American industrialization.
107Meanwhile, whites discussions of republican ideals raised the questions about equality for women, with some states easing the woman’s ability to obtain a divorce, and a loophole in New Jersey’s constitution allowing women and free black property holders the right to vote.
108American republican ideals increasingly recognized the rights of a woman to choose her husband, and in the northeast, many daughters became pregnant by prospective husbands. This “pregnancy policy” secured an economic support for single owmen who were seeing a mass exodus of available young men for the west.
109The number of children per family also begins to diminish as the declining farm sizes and growing urbanization became incentives for fewer children.
110However, cultural differences still saw it as “immoral” for women to engage in extramarital affairs while, for men, the okay for men continued--allowing more women to see the double standard and causing some, like an author calling herself Daphne pointed out the system’s wrongs and advocated women to stand up and condemn the standard.
111Essayist Judith Murray contended that the genders had equal intellectual ability and deserved equal education. She, like many, supported the “republican motherhood” idea that educating white women was important to the values of liberty and independence in order to strengthen the virtue of the new nation. And thus it was the duty of these women to instill these values into their sons and daughters. Thus, many elites broadened their minds and began to found numerous private schools for girls. In the end, these ideals of the republicans asserted that women were intellectually and morally men’s peers which provoked calls for equality--which would not begin as a struggle until the 1800s.
112With regards to the Native American struggle, many eastern states ignored the Non-Intercourse Act and seized Indian lands without congressional approval, crowding Native Americans into tiny reservations.
113Native Americans became demoralized facing such struggles, and unable to strike back at whites, began to dirnk heavily and inflict violence upon one another. However, in 1799 a Seneca prophet named Handsome Lake emerged with visions in which the spirits told him to recover and how his people could recover their traditions. He preached against alcoholism, tried to revive the Seneca’s self-confidence, and welcomed Quaker missionaries who taught the Seneca the Euro-American agriculture.
114Many Seneca men accepted the change, but women resisted because they stood to lose their collective ownership of farmland, and their control of food supply and political influence in the tribe.
115Meanwhile, 8% of all African-Americans enjoyed freedom with many having purchased their freedom or earned it through wartime service.
116Hesitant to ensure free blacks legal equality, many states dropped restrictions on freedom of movement and protected the property of African-Americans while 13 of the 16 states in 1796 permitted free blacks to vote nor made no specific attempt to exclude them.
117It was federal law that led the way in restricting the rights of blacks and nonwhites. Congress, in establishing procedures for naturalizing aliens in 1790 limited and the eligibility for U.S. citizenship to foreign whites and African-Americans were excluded from the militia, the navy and marine corps.
118Self-help came to African-Americans through religious channels with the creation of African-American churches like AME created by Richard Allen and Absalom Jones.
119Whites changing racial attitudes were seen in Congress’ passage of the Fugitive Slave Law that required judges to award possession of an escaped slave upon any formal request by a master or his representative; many times runaways were denied jury trials under this law, and were often refused the right to present evidence of their freedom. In essence, it denied free blacks the legal protection that the Bill of Rights guaranteed as citizens, and their status as property denied them the right to claim constitutional privileges.
120Nevertheless, slave revolts began with those like the one in Richmond, VA where a slave named Gabriel assembled weapons secretly and organized a march of over 1,000 slaves on the capital. The plot was leaked, and in the end, Gabriel and 34 more were executed.
121However, as the 1790’s rolled around so did the technology of necessity for a growing crop in the south-the cotton gin, developed by Eli-Whitney in 1793, it stimulated the cultivation of cotton and gave a  new lease of life to plantation slavery while undermining the doubts of those who considered slavery economically outmoded.
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124Responsibility Breeds Moderation
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127Jefferson was inaugurated president on July 4, 1801 in the swampy village of Washington
128Jefferson’s inaugural address, beautifully phrased, was a classic statement of democratic principles. “The will of the majority is in all cases to prevail”, Jefferson declared. But, he added, “that will to be rightful must be reasonable; the minority possess their equal rights, which equal law must protect, and to violate would be oppression”. Seeking to allay Federalist fears Jefferson ingratiatingly intoned, “we are all Republicans, we are all Federalists”
129Jefferson practiced Pell-Mell, seating without regard to rank or class at official dinners.
130Jefferson was forced to reverse many of the political principles he had so vigorously championed. Jefferson was scholarly private and was harassed by citizens for his thoughts and ideas.
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132
133Jeffersonian Restraint
134Jefferson was determined to undo the Federalist abuse begotten by the anti-French hysteria. THe hated Alien Sedition Acts had already expired. THe incoming president speedily pardoned the “martyrs” who were serving sentences under the Sedition Act, and the government remitted many fines.
135Shortly after Congress, the Jeffersonian idealists enacted the new naturalization law of 1802. This act reduced the unreasonable requirement of fourteen years of residence to the previous and more reasonable requirement of five years.
136Jefferson actually kicked away only one substantial prop of the Hamiltonian system. He hated the excise tax, which bred bureaucrats and bore heavily on his farmer following, and he early persuaded COngress to repeal it. His to principle thus cost the federal government about a million dollars in urgently needed revenue. 
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138
139Jefferson, A Reluctant Warrior
140One of Jefferson’s first actions as president was to reduce the military establishment to a mere police force of twenty five hundred officers and men.
141The United States would set an example for the world, forswearing military force and winning friends through “peaceful coercion”. Also, the Republicans distrusted large standing armies as standing invitations to dictatorship.
142Pirates of the North African Barbary States had long made a national industry of blackmailing and plundering merchant ships that ventured. Into the Mediterranean. Preceding Federalist administrations, in fact, had been forced to buy protection. At the time of the French crisis of 1798, when Americans were shouting, “Millions for the defense but not one cent for tribute”.
143The pashas of Tripoli, dissatisfied with his share of protection money, informally declared war on the United States by cutting down the flagstaff of the American consulate.
144After four years of intermittent fighting, marked by spine-tingling exploits, Jefferson succeeded in extorting a treaty of peace from Tripoli in 1805. It was secured at the bargain price of only $60,000-a sum representing ransom payments for captured Americans.
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146
147The Louisiana Godsend
1481800, a treaty between the King of France and Napoleon, granted Napoleon the territory of the trans-Mississippi region of Louisiana, which included the area of New Orleans.
149Jefferson knew that when the time was ripe, American could dislodge Spain for the territory, but he also knew that if France moved into the area, a huge amount of bloodshed would be required to dislodge France. And even then he would need the help of their former enemy Britain to do it.
150Jefferson sent Robert Livingston to haggle with the French for the purchase of the Louisiana Territory for a maximum of 10 million dollars.
151France unexpectedly was willing to sell the territory for 15 million.
152France wanted to sell it because Napoleon wanted to focus on the struggles closer to home, and with Britain naval dominance, doubted that it would be of any use to him. Plus the previous use to him was the provide the sugar rich West Indies with food, but since disease had pushed his forces from the islands it was now useless to him.
153Jefferson accepted the land although the right was not granted in the COnstitution because of the impatience of the French. 828,000 square miles of land were gain for about 3 cents an acre.
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155
156Louisiana in the Long View
157Jefferson sent out his personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, and a young army officer, William Clark to explore the Northern region the Louisiana Territory with the aid of a woman named Sacajawea.
158Lewis and Clark’s two and a half year trip brought back stories of abundance promises for the future, and of the lands out West.
159Lewis brought back his near death experiences along with information of the Indian tribes out west, and of the hazing buffalo on the never-ending plains.
160Pioneers and missionaries would wind their way down the new trails in the decades to come and to plant AMerican claims on the Oregon region.
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162
163The Aaron Burr Conspiracies
164The ability of the government to control this vast new expanse of land was doubted by many.
165Aaron Burr, Jefferson’s first term vice-president (He was kicked out the second term), joined a group of Federalists to plot the succession of New York and New England. Luckily, Alexander Hamilton foiled the conspiracy and saved the republic!!!!!
166More was to come though. Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel, and concerned of his honor Hamilton accepted the duel. Unwilling to fire, Hamilton was killed by Burr’s first shot.
167Burr’s political career died, as did Hamilton. He turned his attention to a greater prize.
168He allied with General James WIlkinson, the military governor of the Louisiana Territory in a plan to separate the western U.S. from the Eastern U.S.
169Although much of their planning is shrouded and a mystery, it is know that just as they were to meet and go on with their plan, WIlkinson learned that JEfferson had found out about the plan and betrayed Burr before fleeing to New Orleans.
170Burr, being tried for treason, fled to Europe where he unsuccessfully tried to convince Napoleon to ally with Britain to conquer the U.S.
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175America: Neutral
176Jefferson was reelected in 1804; 162:14 electoral votes
177The London government, beginning in 1808 issued a series of Orders in Council, which closed the European ports under French control to foreign shipping, including AMerican, unless the vessels first stopped at a British port.
178Impressment of American seamen was still a major threat from not only Britain
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180
181The Hated Embargo
182America’s navy and army were too weak to fight Britain and France
183The warring nations in Europe depended heavily on America’s trade, and so Jefferson drew up the Embargo act of 1807, which Congress hastily passed. This act forbade the export of all goods from the United States, whether in American or in foreign ships.
184An enormous illicit trade began in 1808, where bands of armed Americans on loaded rafts overawed or overpowered federal agents.
185Congress repealed the Embargo on March 1, 1809, and provided the Non-Intercourse Acts as a replacement. These acts formally reopened trade with every nation but Britain and France.
186During the months the embargo act was in place, New England’s floundering economy led to the reopening of old factories and the creation of new ones.
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188
189Madison’s Gamble
190Madison took the presidential oath on March 4 1809.
191The Non-Intercourse Acts expired in 1810, but Congress made Macon’s Bill No. 2, which reopened America’s trade with the entire world. If either Britain or France repealed its commercial restrictions, America would restore its embargo against the non-repealing nation.
192In August 1810, word came from Napoleon’s foreign minister that French decrees might be repealed if Britain also lifted its Orders in COuncil. Napoleon’s true purpose was to maneuver the United States into resuming its embargo against the British, thus creating a partial blockade against his enemy that he would not have to raise a finger to enforce.
193Madison knew better than to trust Napoleon, but he gambled that the threat of seeing the United States trade exclusively with France would lead the British to repeal their restrictions.
194The terms of Macon’s Bill gave the British three months to live up to their implied promise by revoking the Orders in Council and reopening the Atlantic to neutral trade. Britain didn’t as they had a firm control of the seas and London saw little need to bargain. Americans could either trade exclusively with Britain, or no one at all.
195Madison reestablished the embargo with Britain alone, which he knew meant the end of American neutrality.
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197
198Tecumseh and the Prophet
199War Hawks pushed for AMerica’s involvement in the war and the extermination of the renewed Indian threat to the pioneer settlers who were streaming into trans-Allegheny wilderness.
200Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, the Prophet, formed a confederacy of all the tribes east of the MIssissippi, inspiring a vibrant movement of Indian unity and cultural renewal.
201In the fall of 1811, William Henry Harrison gathered an army and advanced to Tecumseh’s headquarters. Tecumseh was recruiting supporters in the South, but the Prophet attacked Harrison’s force with a small band of Shawnees, who were routed and their settlement was burned.
202This battle discredited the Prophet, and drove Tecumseh into an alliance with Britain. When AMerica’s war with Britain came, he fought with the British till he died in 1813 at the Battle of Thames.
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205Mr Madison’s War
206By the spring of 1812, Madison believed war with Britain to be inevitable. He turned to war to restore confidence in the republican experiment.
207Madison and the Republicans believed that only a vigorous assertion of American rights could demonstrate the viability of AMerican nationhood, and of democracy as a form of government.
208Madison asked Congress to declare war on June 1, 1812. Congress obliged him two weeks later.
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210
211The Panic of 1819
212Largley the fault of the Second Bank of the United States’ tightening of credit in an effort to control inflation: many state banks closed, the value of money fell, and there were large increases in unemployment, bankruptcies, and imprisonment for debt
213Depression was most severe in the West
214The economic crisis changed many Western voters’ political outlook