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39 <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Cogeneration</h1>
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57 </div> Trigeneration cycle
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78 <li><strong class="selflink">Cogeneration</strong></li>
79 <li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a></li>
80 <li><a href="/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li>
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138 <p><b>Cogeneration</b> or <b>combined heat and power</b> (<b>CHP</b>) is the use of a <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engine</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">power station</a> to <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">generate electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">useful heat</a> at the same time. <b>Trigeneration</b> or <b>combined cooling, heat and power</b> (<b>CCHP</b>) refers to the simultaneous generation of electricity and useful heating and cooling from the combustion of a fuel or a solar heat collector.</p>
139 <p>Cogeneration is a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermodynamically efficient</a> use of <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a>. In separate production of electricity, some energy must be discarded as <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a>, but in cogeneration some of this <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> is put to use. All <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal power plant">thermal power plants</a> emit heat during electricity generation, which can be released into the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environment</a> through <a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">cooling towers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flue_gas" title="Flue gas">flue gas</a>, or by other means. In contrast, CHP captures some or all of the by-product for <a href="/wiki/HVAC#heating" title="HVAC">heating</a>, either very close to the plant, or—especially in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>—as hot water for <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> with temperatures ranging from approximately 80 to 130 °C. This is also called <b>combined heat and power district heating</b> (<b>CHPDH</b>). Small CHP plants are an example of <a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">decentralized energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> By-product heat at moderate temperatures (100–180 °C, 212–356 °F) can also be used in <a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">absorption refrigerators</a> for cooling.</p>
140 <p>The supply of high-temperature heat first drives a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas</a> or <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a>-powered generator and the resulting low-temperature waste heat is then used for water or space heating as described in cogeneration. At smaller scales (typically below 1 MW) a <a href="/wiki/Gas_engine" title="Gas engine">gas engine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">diesel engine</a> may be used. Trigeneration differs from cogeneration in that the <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> is used for both heating and cooling, typically in an absorption refrigerator. CCHP systems can attain higher overall efficiencies than cogeneration or traditional power plants. In the United States, the application of trigeneration in buildings is called <b>building cooling, heating and power</b> (<b>BCHP</b>). Heating and cooling output may operate concurrently or alternately depending on need and system construction.</p>
141 <p>Cogeneration was practiced in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation. Before central stations distributed power, industries generating their own power used exhaust steam for process heating. Large office and apartment buildings, hotels and stores commonly generated their own power and used waste steam for building heat. Due to the high cost of early purchased power, these CHP operations continued for many years after utility electricity became available.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></p>
142 <p></p>
143 <div id="toc" class="toc">
144 <div id="toctitle">
145 <h2>Contents</h2>
146 </div>
147 <ul>
148 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a></li>
149 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Types_of_plants"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Types of plants</span></a>
150 <ul>
151 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#MicroCHP"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">MicroCHP</span></a></li>
152 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Trigeneration"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Trigeneration</span></a></li>
153 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Combined_heat_and_power_district_heating"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Combined heat and power district heating</span></a></li>
154 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Industrial_CHP"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Industrial CHP</span></a>
155 <ul>
156 <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Utility_pressures_versus_self_generating_industrial"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Utility pressures versus self generating industrial</span></a></li>
157 </ul> </li>
158 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Heat_recovery_steam_generators"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Heat recovery steam generators</span></a></li>
159 </ul> </li>
160 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Comparison_with_a_heat_pump"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Comparison with a heat pump</span></a></li>
161 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Distributed_generation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Distributed generation</span></a></li>
162 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Thermal_efficiency"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Thermal efficiency</span></a></li>
163 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Costs"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Costs</span></a></li>
164 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
165 <ul>
166 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Cogeneration_in_Europe"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cogeneration in Europe</span></a></li>
167 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Cogeneration_in_the_United_Kingdom"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Cogeneration in the United Kingdom</span></a></li>
168 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Cogeneration_in_the_United_States"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Cogeneration in the United States</span></a>
169 <ul>
170 <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Diffusion"><span class="tocnumber">7.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Diffusion</span></a></li>
171 </ul> </li>
172 </ul> </li>
173 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Applications_in_power_generation_systems"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Applications in power generation systems</span></a>
174 <ul>
175 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Non-renewable"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Non-renewable</span></a></li>
176 <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Renewable"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Renewable</span></a></li>
177 </ul> </li>
178 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
179 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
180 <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
181 </ul>
182 </div>
183 <p></p>
184 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Overview">Overview</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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187 <a href="/wiki/File:Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg/300px-Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg" width="300" height="101" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg/450px-Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg/600px-Masned%C3%B8_power_station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2003" data-file-height="677"></a>
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192 <a href="/wiki/Masned%C3%B8" title="Masnedø">Masnedø</a> CHP power station in
193 <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>. This station burns straw as fuel. The adjacent greenhouses are heated by
194 <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> from the plant.
195 </div>
196 </div>
197 </div>
198 <p><a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal power plants">Thermal power plants</a> (including those that use <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">fissile elements</a> or burn <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engines</a> in general, do not convert all of their thermal energy into electricity. In most heat engines, a bit more than half is lost as excess <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> (see: <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">Second law of thermodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carnot%27s_theorem_(thermodynamics)" title="Carnot's theorem (thermodynamics)">Carnot's theorem</a>). By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plant</a>, potentially reaching an <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">efficiency</a> of up to 80%,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> for the best conventional plants. This means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the same amount of useful energy.</p>
199 <p>Steam turbines for cogeneration are designed for <i>extraction</i> of steam at lower pressures after it has passed through a number of turbine stages, or they may be designed for final exhaust at <i>back pressure</i> (non-condensing), or both.<sup id="cite_ref-Steam-its_generation_and_use_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steam-its_generation_and_use-5">[5]</a></sup> A typical power generation turbine in a <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mill</a> may have extraction pressures of 160 psig (1.103 MPa) and 60 psig (0.41 MPa). A typical back pressure may be 60 psig (0.41 MPa). In practice these pressures are custom designed for each facility. The extracted or exhaust steam is used for process heating, such as drying paper, evaporation, heat for chemical reactions or distillation. Steam at ordinary process heating conditions still has a considerable amount of <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> that could be used for power generation, so cogeneration has lost opportunity cost. Conversely, simply generating steam at process pressure instead of high enough pressure to generate power at the top end also has lost opportunity cost. (See: <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine#Steam_supply_and_exhaust_conditions" title="Steam turbine">Steam turbine#Steam supply and exhaust conditions</a>) The capital and operating cost of high pressure boilers, turbines and generators are substantial, and this equipment is normally operated <a href="/wiki/Continuous_production" title="Continuous production">continuously</a>, which usually limits self-generated power to large-scale operations.</p>
200 <div class="thumb tleft">
201 <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
202 <a href="/wiki/File:Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/220px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg" width="220" height="215" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/330px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg/440px-Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="519"></a>
203 <div class="thumbcaption">
204 <div class="magnify">
205 <a href="/wiki/File:Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
206 </div> A cogeneration plant in
207 <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a>,
208 <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. The 45MW boiler uses waste wood
209 <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> as energy source, and provides electricity and heat for 30,000
210 <a href="/wiki/Dwelling" title="Dwelling">dwellings</a>.
211 </div>
212 </div>
213 </div>
214 <p>Some tri-cycle plants have used a <a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" title="Combined cycle">combined cycle</a> in which several thermodynamic cycles produced electricity, then a heating system was used as a <a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">condenser</a> of the power plant's <a href="/wiki/Bottoming_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottoming cycle">bottoming cycle</a>. For example, the RU-25 <a href="/wiki/MHD_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="MHD generator">MHD generator</a> in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> heated a boiler for a conventional steam powerplant, whose condensate was then used for space heat. A more modern system might use a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a> powered by <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, whose exhaust powers a steam plant, whose condensate provides heat. Tri-cycle plants can have thermal efficiencies above 80%.</p>
215 <p>The viability of CHP (sometimes termed utilisation factor), especially in smaller CHP installations, depends on a good baseload of operation, both in terms of an on-site (or near site) electrical demand and heat demand. In practice, an exact match between the heat and electricity needs rarely exists. A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat (<i>heat driven operation</i>) or be run as a <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plant</a> with some use of its waste heat, the latter being less advantageous in terms of its utilisation factor and thus its overall efficiency. The viability can be greatly increased where opportunities for <a href="/wiki/Trigeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigeneration">Trigeneration</a> exist. In such cases, the heat from the CHP plant is also used as a primary energy source to deliver cooling by means of an <a href="/wiki/Absorption_chiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption chiller">absorption chiller</a>.</p>
216 <p>CHP is most efficient when heat can be used on-site or very close to it. Overall efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.</p>
217 <p>A car engine becomes a CHP plant in winter when the reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. The example illustrates the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat uses in the vicinity of the heat engine.</p>
218 <p>Thermally <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">enhanced oil recovery</a> (TEOR) plants often produce a substantial amount of excess electricity. After generating electricity, these plants pump leftover steam into heavy oil wells so that the oil will flow more easily, increasing production. TEOR cogeneration plants in <a href="/wiki/Kern_County,_California" title="Kern County, California">Kern County, California</a> produce so much electricity that it cannot all be used locally and is transmitted to <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</p>
219 <p>CHP is one of the most cost-efficient methods of reducing carbon emissions from heating systems in cold climates <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> and is recognized to be the most energy efficient method of transforming energy from fossil fuels or biomass into electric power.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> Cogeneration plants are commonly found in <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> systems of cities, central heating systems from buildings, hospitals, prisons and are commonly used in the industry in thermal production processes for process water, cooling, steam production or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> fertilization.</p>
220 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Types_of_plants">Types of plants</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of plants">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
221 <p>Topping cycle plants primarily produce electricity from a steam turbine. The exhausted steam is then condensed and the low temperature heat released from this condensation is utilized for e.g. <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> or <a href="/wiki/Water_desalination" class="mw-redirect" title="Water desalination">water desalination</a>.</p>
222 <p><a href="/wiki/Bottoming_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottoming cycle">Bottoming cycle</a> plants produce high temperature heat for industrial processes, then a waste heat recovery boiler feeds an electrical plant. Bottoming cycle plants are only used when the industrial process requires very high temperatures such as furnaces for glass and metal manufacturing, so they are less common.</p>
223 <p>Large cogeneration systems provide heating water and power for an industrial site or an entire town. Common CHP plant types are:</p>
224 <ul>
225 <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">Gas turbine</a> CHP plants using the waste heat in the flue gas of gas turbines. The fuel used is typically <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>.</li>
226 <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_engine" title="Gas engine">Gas engine</a> CHP plants use a reciprocating gas engine which is generally more competitive than a gas turbine up to about 5 MW. The gaseous fuel used is normally <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the site's gas supply, electrical distribution network and heating systems. Typical outputs and efficiences see <sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Typical large example see <sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></li>
227 <li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel engine</a> CHP plants use an adapted reciprocating gas engine or <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">diesel engine</a>, depending upon which biofuel is being used, and are otherwise very similar in design to a Gas engine CHP plant. The advantage of using a biofuel is one of reduced <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocarbon fuel">hydrocarbon fuel</a> consumption and thus reduced carbon emissions. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the site's electrical distribution and heating systems. Another variant is the <a href="/wiki/Wood_gasifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood gasifier">wood gasifier</a> CHP plant whereby a wood pellet or wood chip biofuel is <a href="/wiki/Gasified" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasified">gasified</a> in a zero oxygen high temperature environment; the resulting gas is then used to power the gas engine. Typical smaller size biogas plant see <sup id="cite_ref-claverton-energy.com_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-claverton-energy.com-10">[10]</a></sup></li>
228 <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" title="Combined cycle">Combined cycle</a> power plants adapted for CHP</li>
229 <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-carbonate_fuel_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten-carbonate fuel cell">Molten-carbonate fuel cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid_oxide_fuel_cell" title="Solid oxide fuel cell">solid oxide fuel cells</a> have a hot exhaust, very suitable for heating.</li>
230 <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">Steam turbine</a> CHP plants that use the heating system as the <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> condenser for the steam turbine.</li>
231 <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">plants</a>, similar to other steam turbine power plants, can be fitted with extractions in the turbines to bleed partially expanded steam to a heating system. With a heating system temperature of 95 °C it is possible to extract about 10 MW heat for every MW electricity lost. With a temperature of 130 °C the gain is slightly smaller, about 7 MW for every MWe lost.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></li>
232 </ul>
233 <p>Smaller cogeneration units may use a <a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">reciprocating engine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">Stirling engine</a>. The heat is removed from the exhaust and radiator. The systems are popular in small sizes because small gas and diesel engines are less expensive than small gas- or oil-fired steam-electric plants.</p>
234 <p>Some cogeneration plants are fired by <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> or industrial and <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">municipal solid waste</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incineration</a>). Some CHP plants utilize waste gas as the fuel for electricity and heat generation. Waste gases can be gas from <a href="/wiki/Animal_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal waste">animal waste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landfill_gas" title="Landfill gas">landfill gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firedamp" title="Firedamp">gas from coal mines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewage_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sewage gas">sewage gas</a>, and combustible industrial waste gas.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></p>
235 <p>Some cogeneration plants combine gas and solar <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> generation to further improve technical and environmental performance.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Such hybrid systems can be scaled down to the building level<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> and even individual homes.<sup id="cite_ref-Energy_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Energy-16">[16]</a></sup> More recent results show that solar photovoltaic + <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" title="Battery (electricity)">battery</a> + CHP hybrid systems are technically viable in the continental U.S. to reduce consumer costs,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> while reducing energy- and electricity-related <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></p>
236 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="MicroCHP">MicroCHP</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: MicroCHP">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
237 <p><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro combined heat and power</a> or 'Micro cogeneration" is a so-called <a href="/wiki/Distributed_Energy_Resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributed Energy Resource">distributed energy resource</a> (DER). The installation is usually less than 5 <a href="/wiki/Watt#Electrical_and_thermal_watts" title="Watt">kW<sub>e</sub></a> in a house or small business. Instead of burning fuel to merely heat space or water, some of the energy is converted to electricity in addition to heat. This electricity can be used within the home or business or, if permitted by the grid management, sold back into the electric power grid.</p>
238 <p>Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> 20.000 units were sold in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project. With a <a href="/wiki/Service_life" title="Service life">Lifetime</a> of around 60,000 hours. For PEM fuel cell units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between ten and fifteen years.<sup id="cite_ref-fuelcelltoday.com_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fuelcelltoday.com-20">[20]</a></sup> For a price of $22,600 before installation.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units is in place.<sup id="cite_ref-fuelcelltoday.com_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fuelcelltoday.com-20">[20]</a></sup></p>
239 <p>The development of small-scale CHP systems has provided the opportunity for in-house power backup of residential-scale <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> (PV) arrays.<sup id="cite_ref-Energy_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Energy-16">[16]</a></sup> The results of a 2011 study show that a PV+CHP hybrid system not only has the potential to radically reduce energy waste in the status quo electrical and heating systems, but it also enables the share of solar PV to be expanded by about a factor of five.<sup id="cite_ref-Energy_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Energy-16">[16]</a></sup> In some regions, in order to reduce waste from excess heat, an <a href="/wiki/Absorption_chiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption chiller">absorption chiller</a> has been proposed to utilize the CHP-produced thermal energy for cooling of PV-CHP system. <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> These <a href="/wiki/Trigeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigeneration">trigeneration</a>+<a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> systems have the potential to save even more energy and further reduce emissions compared to conventional sources of power, heating and cooling.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup></p>
240 <p>MicroCHP installations use five different technologies: <a href="/wiki/Microturbines" class="mw-redirect" title="Microturbines">microturbines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal combustion">internal combustion</a> engines, <a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">stirling engines</a>, closed cycle <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a>. One author indicated in 2008 that MicroCHP based on Stirling engines is the most cost effective of the so-called microgeneration technologies in abating carbon emissions;<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> A 2013 UK report from Ecuity Consulting stated that MCHP is the most cost-effective method of utilising gas to generate energy at the domestic level.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> however, advances in reciprocation engine technology are adding efficiency to CHP plant, particularly in the biogas field.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> As both MiniCHP and CHP have been shown to reduce emissions <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> they could play a large role in the field of CO<sub>2</sub> reduction from buildings, where more than 14% of emissions can be saved using CHP in buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> The ability to reduce emissions is particularly strong for new communities in emission intensive grids that utilize a combination of CHP and photovoltaic systems.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></p>
241 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trigeneration">Trigeneration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Trigeneration">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
242 <p>A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is called a trigeneration<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> or polygeneration plant. Cogeneration systems linked to <a href="/wiki/Absorption_chiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption chiller">absorption chillers</a> use waste heat for <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup></p>
243 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Combined_heat_and_power_district_heating">Combined heat and power district heating</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Combined heat and power district heating">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
244 <div role="note" class="hatnote">
245 See also:
246 <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a>
247 </div>
248 <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Edison" title="Consolidated Edison">Consolidated Edison</a> distributes 66 billion kilograms of 350 °F (180 °C) steam each year through its seven cogeneration plants to 100,000 buildings in <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>—the biggest steam district in the United States. The peak delivery is 10 million pounds per hour (or approximately 2.5 GW).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup></p>
249 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Industrial_CHP">Industrial CHP</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Industrial CHP">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
250 <p>Cogeneration is still common in <a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulp and paper mill">pulp and paper mills</a>, refineries and chemical plants. In this "industrial cogeneration/CHP", the heat is typically recovered at higher temperatures (above 100 deg C) and used for process steam or drying duties. This is more valuable and flexible than low-grade waste heat, but there is a slight loss of power generation. The increased focus on <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> has made industrial CHP more attractive, as it substantially reduces <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> compared to generating steam or burning fuel on-site and importing electric power from the grid.</p>
251 <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Utility_pressures_versus_self_generating_industrial">Utility pressures versus self generating industrial</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Utility pressures versus self generating industrial">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
252 <p>Industrial cogeneration plants normally operate at much lower boiler pressures than utilities. Among the reasons are: 1) Cogeneration plants face possible contamination of returned condensate. Because boiler feed water from cogeneration plants has much lower return rates than 100% condensing power plants, industries usually have to treat proportionately more boiler make up water. Boiler feed water must be completely oxygen free and de-mineralized, and the higher the pressure the more critical the level of purity of the feed water.<sup id="cite_ref-Steam-its_generation_and_use_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steam-its_generation_and_use-5">[5]</a></sup> 2) Utilities are typically larger scale power than industry, which helps offset the higher capital costs of high pressure. 3) Utilities are less likely to have sharp load swings than industrial operations, which deal with shutting down or starting up units that may represent a significant percent of either steam or power demand.</p>
253 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Heat_recovery_steam_generators">Heat recovery steam generators</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Heat recovery steam generators">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
254 <p>A <a href="/wiki/Heat_recovery_steam_generator" title="Heat recovery steam generator">heat recovery steam generator</a> (HRSG) is a steam boiler that uses hot exhaust gases from the <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbines</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">reciprocating engines</a> in a CHP plant to heat up water and generate <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>. The steam, in turn, drives a <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> or is used in industrial processes that require heat.</p>
255 <p>HRSGs used in the CHP industry are distinguished from conventional steam generators by the following main features:</p>
256 <ul>
257 <li>The HRSG is designed based upon the specific features of the gas turbine or reciprocating engine that it will be coupled to.</li>
258 <li>Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low, heat transmission is accomplished mainly through <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a>.</li>
259 <li>The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to keep head losses down. Thus, the transmission coefficient is low, which calls for a large heating surface area.</li>
260 <li>Since the temperature difference between the hot gases and the fluid to be heated (steam or water) is low, and with the heat transmission coefficient being low as well, the evaporator and economizer are designed with plate fin heat exchangers.</li>
261 </ul>
262 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Comparison_with_a_heat_pump">Comparison with a heat pump</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Comparison with a heat pump">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
263 <p>A <a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">heat pump</a> may be compared with a CHP unit, in that for a condensing steam plant, as it switches to produce heat, then electrical generation becomes unavailable, just as the power used in a heat pump becomes unavailable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Typically for every unit of electrical power lost, then about 6 units of heat are made available at about 90 °C. Thus CHP has an effective <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_performance" title="Coefficient of performance">Coefficient of Performance (COP)</a> compared to a heat pump of 6.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> It is noteworthy that the unit for the CHP is lost at the high voltage network and therefore incurs no losses, whereas the heat pump unit is lost at the low voltage part of the network and incurs on average a 6% loss. Because the losses are proportional to the square of the current, during peak periods losses are much higher than this and it is likely that widespread (i.e. city-wide application of heat pumps) would cause overloading of the distribution and transmission grids unless they are substantially reinforced.</p>
264 <p>It is also possible to run a heat driven operation combined with a heat pump, where the excess electricity (as heat demand is the defining factor on utilization) is used to drive a heat pump. As heat demand increases, more electricity is generated to drive the heat pump, with the waste heat also heating the heating fluid.</p>
265 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Distributed_generation">Distributed generation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Distributed generation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
266 <p>Trigeneration has its greatest benefits when scaled to fit buildings or complexes of buildings where electricity, heating and cooling are perpetually needed. Such installations include but are not limited to: data centers, manufacturing facilities, universities, hospitals, military complexes, and schools. Localized trigeneration has addition benefits as described by <a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">distributed generation</a>. Redundancy of power in mission critical applications, lower power usage costs and the ability to sell electrical power back to the local utility are a few of the major benefits. Even for small buildings such as individual family homes trigeneration systems provide benefits over cogeneration because of increased energy utilization.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> This increased efficiency can also provide significant reduced <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>, particularly for new communities.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></p>
267 <p>Most industrial countries generate the majority of their electrical power needs in large centralized facilities with capacity for large electrical power output. These plants have excellent economies of scale, but usually transmit electricity long distances resulting in sizable losses, negatively affect the environment. Large power plants can use cogeneration or trigeneration systems only when sufficient need exists in immediate geographic vicinity for an industrial complex, additional power plant or a city. An example of cogeneration with trigeneration applications in a major city is the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_steam_system" title="New York City steam system">New York City steam system</a>.</p>
268 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Thermal_efficiency">Thermal efficiency</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Thermal efficiency">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
269 <p>Every heat engine is subject to the theoretical efficiency limits of the <a href="/wiki/Carnot_cycle" title="Carnot cycle">Carnot cycle</a>. When the fuel is <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a> is typically used.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Mechanical energy from the turbine drives an <a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">electric generator</a>. The low-grade (i.e. low temperature) <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> rejected by the turbine is then applied to space heating or cooling or to industrial processes. Cooling is achieved by passing the waste heat to an <a href="/wiki/Absorption_chiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption chiller">absorption chiller</a>.</p>
270 <p><a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">Thermal efficiency</a> in a trigeneration system is defined as:</p>
271 <dl>
272 <dd>
273 <span><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;">
274 <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
275 <semantics>
276 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
277 <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
278 <msub>
279 <mi>
280 η
281 <!-- η -->
282 </mi>
283 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
284 <mi>
285 t
286 </mi>
287 <mi>
288 h
289 </mi>
290 </mrow>
291 </msub>
292 <mo>
293 ≡
294 <!-- ≡ -->
295 </mo>
296 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
297 <mfrac>
298 <msub>
299 <mi>
300 W
301 </mi>
302 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
303 <mi>
304 o
305 </mi>
306 <mi>
307 u
308 </mi>
309 <mi>
310 t
311 </mi>
312 </mrow>
313 </msub>
314 <msub>
315 <mi>
316 Q
317 </mi>
318 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
319 <mi>
320 i
321 </mi>
322 <mi>
323 n
324 </mi>
325 </mrow>
326 </msub>
327 </mfrac>
328 </mrow>
329 <mo>
330 ≡
331 <!-- ≡ -->
332 </mo>
333 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
334 <mfrac>
335 <mtext>
336 Electrical Power Output + Heat Output + Cooling Output
337 </mtext>
338 <mtext>
339 Total Heat Input
340 </mtext>
341 </mfrac>
342 </mrow>
343 </mstyle>
344 </mrow>
345 <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">
346 {\displaystyle \eta _{th}\equiv {\frac {W_{out}}{Q_{in}}}\equiv {\frac {\text{Electrical Power Output + Heat Output + Cooling Output}}{\text{Total Heat Input}}}}
347 </annotation>
348 </semantics>
349 </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/83bec018e8eaa090b04832c3385fb1f1f1bdad3c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:75.421ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="\eta _{{th}}\equiv {\frac {W_{{out}}}{Q_{{in}}}}\equiv {\frac {{\text{Electrical Power Output + Heat Output + Cooling Output}}}{{\text{Total Heat Input}}}}"></span>
350 </dd>
351 </dl>
352 <p>Where:</p>
353 <dl>
354 <dd>
355 <span><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;">
356 <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
357 <semantics>
358 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
359 <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
360 <msub>
361 <mi>
362 η
363 <!-- η -->
364 </mi>
365 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
366 <mi>
367 t
368 </mi>
369 <mi>
370 h
371 </mi>
372 </mrow>
373 </msub>
374 </mstyle>
375 </mrow>
376 <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">
377 {\displaystyle \eta _{th}}
378 </annotation>
379 </semantics>
380 </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7f49a8790992ff5da3e0f4766b1722301f0fce1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.953ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="\eta _{{th}}"></span> = Thermal efficiency
381 </dd>
382 <dd>
383 <span><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;">
384 <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
385 <semantics>
386 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
387 <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
388 <msub>
389 <mi>
390 W
391 </mi>
392 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
393 <mi>
394 o
395 </mi>
396 <mi>
397 u
398 </mi>
399 <mi>
400 t
401 </mi>
402 </mrow>
403 </msub>
404 </mstyle>
405 </mrow>
406 <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">
407 {\displaystyle W_{out}}
408 </annotation>
409 </semantics>
410 </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b268f9b2a16d3e3e32de585eb140111f92f71fc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.79ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="W_{out}"></span> = Total work output by all systems
411 </dd>
412 <dd>
413 <span><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;">
414 <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
415 <semantics>
416 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
417 <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
418 <msub>
419 <mi>
420 Q
421 </mi>
422 <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
423 <mi>
424 i
425 </mi>
426 <mi>
427 n
428 </mi>
429 </mrow>
430 </msub>
431 </mstyle>
432 </mrow>
433 <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">
434 {\displaystyle Q_{in}}
435 </annotation>
436 </semantics>
437 </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/515dc23886db2c8ddb69a53b3aebef426872c1cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.649ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="Q_{in}"></span> = Total heat input into the system
438 </dd>
439 </dl>
440 <p>Typical trigeneration models have losses as in any system. The energy distribution below is represented as a percent of total input energy:<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup></p>
441 <dl>
442 <dd>
443 Electricity = 45%
444 </dd>
445 <dd>
446 Heat + Cooling = 40%
447 </dd>
448 <dd>
449 Heat Losses = 13%
450 </dd>
451 <dd>
452 Electrical Line Losses = 2%
453 </dd>
454 </dl>
455 <p>Conventional central coal- or nuclear-powered power stations convert only about 33% of their input heat to electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-energy.gov_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-energy.gov-40">[40]</a></sup> The remaining 67% emerges from the turbines as low-grade waste heat with no significant local uses so it is usually rejected to the environment. These low conversion efficiencies strongly suggest that productive uses could be found for this waste heat, and in some countries these plants do collect byproduct heat that can be sold to customers.</p>
456 <p>But if no practical uses can be found for the waste heat from a central power station, e.g., due to distance from potential customers, then moving generation to where the waste heat can find uses may be of great benefit. Even though the efficiency of a small distributed electrical generator may be lower than a large central power plant, the use of its waste heat for local heating and cooling can result in an overall use of the primary fuel supply as great as 80%.<sup id="cite_ref-energy.gov_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-energy.gov-40">[40]</a></sup> This provides substantial financial and environmental benefits.</p>
457 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Costs">Costs</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Costs">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
458 <p>Typically, for a gas-fired plant the fully installed cost per kW electrical is around £400/kW ($577 USD), which is comparable with large central power stations.<sup id="cite_ref-claverton-energy.com_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-claverton-energy.com-10">[10]</a></sup></p>
459 <p>See also <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></p>
460 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
461 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cogeneration_in_Europe">Cogeneration in Europe</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cogeneration in Europe">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
462 <div class="thumb tright">
463 <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
464 <a href="/wiki/File:Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg/220px-Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg/330px-Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg/440px-Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112"></a>
465 <div class="thumbcaption">
466 <div class="magnify">
467 <a href="/wiki/File:Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
468 </div> A cogeneration thermal power plant in
469 <a href="/wiki/Ferrera_Erbognone" title="Ferrera Erbognone">Ferrera Erbognone</a> (
470 <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pavia" title="Province of Pavia">PV</a>),
471 <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>
472 </div>
473 </div>
474 </div>
475 <p>The <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> has actively incorporated cogeneration into its energy policy via the <a href="/wiki/CHP_Directive" title="CHP Directive">CHP Directive</a>. In September 2008 at a hearing of the European Parliament’s Urban Lodgment Intergroup, Energy Commissioner Andris Piebalgs is quoted as saying, “security of supply really starts with energy efficiency.â€<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> Energy efficiency and cogeneration are recognized in the opening paragraphs of the European Union’s Cogeneration Directive 2004/08/EC. This directive intends to support cogeneration and establish a method for calculating cogeneration abilities per country. The development of cogeneration has been very uneven over the years and has been dominated throughout the last decades by national circumstances.</p>
476 <p>The European Union generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> However, there is large difference between Member States with variations of the energy savings between 2% and 60%. Europe has the three countries with the world’s most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Of the 28.46 TWh of electrical power generated by conventional thermal power plants in Finland in 2012, 81.80% was cogeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup></p>
477 <p>Other European countries are also making great efforts to increase efficiency. Germany reported that at present, over 50% of the country’s total electricity demand could be provided through cogeneration. So far, Germany has set the target to double its electricity cogeneration from 12.5% of the country’s electricity to 25% of the country’s electricity by 2020 and has passed supporting legislation accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> The UK is also actively supporting combined heat and power. In light of UK’s goal to achieve a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, the government has set the target to source at least 15% of its government electricity use from CHP by 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> Other UK measures to encourage CHP growth are financial incentives, grant support, a greater regulatory framework, and government leadership and partnership.</p>
478 <p>According to the IEA 2008 modeling of cogeneration expansion for the G8 countries, the expansion of cogeneration in France, Germany, Italy and the UK alone would effectively double the existing primary fuel savings by 2030. This would increase Europe’s savings from today’s 155.69 Twh to 465 Twh in 2030. It would also result in a 16% to 29% increase in each country’s total cogenerated electricity by 2030.</p>
479 <p>Governments are being assisted in their CHP endeavors by organizations like <a href="/wiki/COGEN_Europe" title="COGEN Europe">COGEN Europe</a> who serve as an information hub for the most recent updates within Europe’s energy policy. COGEN is Europe’s umbrella organization representing the interests of the cogeneration industry.</p>
480 <p>The European <a href="/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership" title="Public–private partnership">public–private partnership</a> <a href="/wiki/Fuel_Cells_and_Hydrogen_Joint_Technology_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative">Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking</a> <a href="/wiki/Framework_Programmes_for_Research_and_Technological_Development" title="Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development">Seventh Framework Programme</a> project ene.field deploys in 2017<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> up 1,000 residential fuel cell Combined Heat and Power (<a href="/wiki/Micro-CHP" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-CHP">micro-CHP</a>) installations in 12 states. Per 2012 the first 2 installations have taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup></p>
481 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cogeneration_in_the_United_Kingdom">Cogeneration in the United Kingdom</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cogeneration in the United Kingdom">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
482 <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <b>Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance</b> (CHPQA) scheme regulates the combined production of heat and power. CHPQA was introduced in 1996. It defines, through calculation of inputs and outputs, "Good Quality CHP" in terms of the achievement of primary energy savings against conventional separate generation of heat and electricity. Compliance with CHPQA is required for cogeneration installations to be eligible for government subsidies and tax incentives.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup></p>
483 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cogeneration_in_the_United_States">Cogeneration in the United States</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cogeneration in the United States">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
484 <div class="thumb tright">
485 <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;">
486 <a href="/wiki/File:Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg/220px-Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg" width="220" height="176" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg/330px-Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg/440px-Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2468" data-file-height="1974"></a>
487 <div class="thumbcaption">
488 <div class="magnify">
489 <a href="/wiki/File:Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a>
490 </div> The 250
491 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">MW</a>
492 <a href="/wiki/Kendall_Cogeneration_Station" title="Kendall Cogeneration Station">Kendall Cogeneration Station</a> plant in
493 <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>
494 </div>
495 </div>
496 </div>
497 <p>Perhaps the first modern use of <a href="/wiki/Energy_recycling" title="Energy recycling">energy recycling</a> was done by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>. His 1882 <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Street_Station" title="Pearl Street Station">Pearl Street Station</a>, the world’s first commercial power plant, was a combined heat and power plant, producing both electricity and thermal energy while using waste heat to warm neighboring buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Recycling allowed Edison’s plant to achieve approximately 50 percent efficiency.</p>
498 <p>By the early 1900s, regulations emerged to promote rural electrification through the construction of centralized plants managed by regional utilities. These regulations not only promoted electrification throughout the countryside, but they also discouraged decentralized power generation, such as cogeneration.</p>
499 <p>By 1978, Congress recognized that efficiency at central power plants had stagnated and sought to encourage improved efficiency with the <a href="/wiki/Public_Utility_Regulatory_Policies_Act" title="Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act">Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act</a> (PURPA), which encouraged utilities to buy power from other energy producers.</p>
500 <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Diffusion">Diffusion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Diffusion">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
501 <p>Cogeneration plants proliferated, soon producing about 8% of all energy in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-localpower_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-localpower-53">[53]</a></sup> However, the bill left implementation and enforcement up to individual states, resulting in little or nothing being done in many parts of the country.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p>
502 <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> has an aggressive goal of having CHP constitute 20% of generation capacity by the year 2030. Eight Clean Energy Application Centers<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> have been established across the nation whose mission is to develop the required technology application knowledge and educational infrastructure necessary to lead "clean energy" (combined heat and power, waste heat recovery and district energy) technologies as viable energy options and reduce any perceived risks associated with their implementation. The focus of the Application Centers is to provide an outreach and technology deployment program for end users, policy makers, utilities, and industry stakeholders.</p>
503 <p>High electric rates in New England and the Middle Atlantic make these areas of the United States the most beneficial for cogeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-electricitydata_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-electricitydata-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-energysaving_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-energysaving-56">[56]</a></sup></p>
504 <p>Outside of the United States, energy recycling is more common. <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> is probably the most active energy recycler, obtaining about 55% of its energy from cogeneration and waste heat recovery.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other large countries, including Germany, Russia, and India, also obtain a much higher share of their energy from decentralized sources.<sup id="cite_ref-localpower_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-localpower-53">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-npr2008may22_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npr2008may22-57">[57]</a></sup></p>
505 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Applications_in_power_generation_systems">Applications in power generation systems</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Applications in power generation systems">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
506 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Non-renewable">Non-renewable</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Non-renewable">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
507 <p>Any of the following conventional power plants may be converted to a CCHP system:<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup></p>
508 <ul>
509 <li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li>
510 <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine#Microturbines" title="Gas turbine">Microturbine</a></li>
511 <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li>
512 <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li>
513 <li><a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">Oil</a></li>
514 <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">Small gas turbine</a></li>
515 </ul>
516 <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Renewable">Renewable</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Renewable">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
517 <ul>
518 <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a>—both <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">solar thermal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic</a></li>
519 <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_heating_system#Combined_heat_and_power" title="Biomass heating system">Biomass</a></li>
520 <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li>
521 <li>Any type of <a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" title="Gas compressor">compressor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Turboexpander" title="Turboexpander">turboexpander</a>, such as in <a href="/wiki/Compressed_air_energy_storage" title="Compressed air energy storage">compressed air energy storage</a></li>
522 </ul>
523 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
524 <div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal plainlist tright" style="margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px">
525 <ul style="display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold">
526 <li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" width="29" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124"></a></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></span></li>
527 <li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="image"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/28px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/42px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/56px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></a></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy portal</a></span></li>
528 </ul>
529 </div>
530 <div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
531 <ul>
532 <li><a href="/wiki/Air_separation" title="Air separation">Air separation</a></li>
533 <li><a href="/wiki/Carnot_cycle" title="Carnot cycle">Carnot cycle</a></li>
534 <li><a href="/wiki/Carnot_method" title="Carnot method">Carnot method</a></li>
535 <li><a href="/wiki/CHP_Directive" title="CHP Directive">CHP Directive</a></li>
536 <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li>
537 <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a> (more general term encompassing CHP)</li>
538 <li><a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></li>
539 <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">Electricity generation</a></li>
540 <li><a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a></li>
541 <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union" title="Energy policy of the European Union">Energy policy of the European Union</a></li>
542 <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">Environmental impact of electricity generation</a></li>
543 <li><a href="/wiki/European_Biomass_Association" title="European Biomass Association">European Biomass Association</a></li>
544 <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euroheat_%26_Power&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Euroheat & Power (page does not exist)">Euroheat & Power</a></li>
545 <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_gas" title="Industrial gas">Industrial gas</a></li>
546 <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro combined heat and power</a></li>
547 <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_steam_system" title="New York City steam system">New York City steam system</a></li>
548 <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li>
549 </ul>
550 </div>
551 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
552 <ul>
553 <li><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nqMMAAAAYAAJ"><i>Steam, Its Generation and Use</i></a> (35 ed.). Babcock & Wilson Company. 1913.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Its+Generation+and+Use&rft.date=1913&rft.edition=35&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnqMMAAAAYAAJ&rft.pub=Babcock+%26+Wilson+Company&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li>
554 </ul>
555 <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
556 <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
557 <ol class="references">
558 <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clarke-energy.com/chp-cogeneration/">Cogeneration and Cogeneration Schematic</a>, www.clarke-energy.com, retrieved 26.11.11</span></li>
559 <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dekb.co.uk/home/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=82&Itemid=93">"What is Decentralised Energy?"</a>. The Decentralised Energy Knowledge Base.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=What+is+Decentralised+Energy%3F&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dekb.co.uk%2Fhome%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Dcategory%26id%3D82%26Itemid%3D93&rft.pub=The+Decentralised+Energy+Knowledge+Base&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
560 <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). <i>A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730-1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-08198-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-08198-9">0-262-08198-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.au=Bryant%2C+Lynwood&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730-1930%2C+Vol.+3%3A+The+Transmission+of+Power&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-262-08198-9&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts%2C+London&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
561 <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/distributedenergy/pdfs/chp_report_12-08.pdf">"Combined Heat and Power – Effective Energy Solutions for a Sustainable Future"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 1 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Combined+Heat+and+Power+%93+Effective+Energy+Solutions+for+a+Sustainable+Future&rft.date=2008-12-01&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.eere.energy.gov%2Findustry%2Fdistributedenergy%2Fpdfs%2Fchp_report_12-08.pdf&rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
562 <li id="cite_note-Steam-its_generation_and_use-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steam-its_generation_and_use_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steam-its_generation_and_use_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><i>Steam-its generation and use</i>. Babcock & Wilcox. (Numerous editions).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Steam-its+generation+and+use&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Babcock+%26+Wilcox&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|date=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li>
563 <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.claverton-energy.com/carbon-footprints-of-various-sources-of-heat-chpdh-comes-out-lowest.html">"Carbon footprints of various sources of heat – biomass combustion and CHPDH comes out lowest"</a>. Claverton Energy Research Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Carbon+footprints+of+various+sources+of+heat+%93+biomass+combustion+and+CHPDH+comes+out+lowest&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.claverton-energy.com%2Fcarbon-footprints-of-various-sources-of-heat-chpdh-comes-out-lowest.html&rft.pub=Claverton+Energy+Research+Group&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
564 <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.viessmann.co.uk/en/industry/combined-heat-and-power-generation/chp-units.html">"Cogeneration recognized to be the most energy efficient method of transforming energy"</a>. Viessmann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Cogeneration+recognized+to+be+the+most+energy+efficient+method+of+transforming+energy&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.viessmann.co.uk%2Fen%2Findustry%2Fcombined-heat-and-power-generation%2Fchp-units.html&rft.pub=Viessmann&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
565 <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.claverton-energy.com/finning-caterpillar-gas-engine-chp-ratings-and-thermal-outputs.html">"Finning Caterpillar Gas Engine CHP Ratings"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Finning+Caterpillar+Gas+Engine+CHP+Ratings&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.claverton-energy.com%2Ffinning-caterpillar-gas-engine-chp-ratings-and-thermal-outputs.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
566 <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.claverton-energy.com/first-energy-offer-excellent-condition-complete-gas-engined-chp-system-for-sale-and-installation.html">"Complete 7 MWe Deutz ( 2 x 3.5MWe) gas engine CHP power plant for sale"</a>. Claverton Energy Research Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Complete+7+MWe+Deutz+%28+2+x+3.5MWe%29+gas+engine+CHP+power+plant+for+sale&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.claverton-energy.com%2Ffirst-energy-offer-excellent-condition-complete-gas-engined-chp-system-for-sale-and-installation.html&rft.pub=Claverton+Energy+Research+Group&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
567 <li id="cite_note-claverton-energy.com-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-claverton-energy.com_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-claverton-energy.com_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.claverton-energy.com/38-hhv-caterpillar-bio-gas-engine-fitted-to-long-reach-sewage-works.html">"38% HHV Caterpillar Bio-gas Engine Fitted to Sewage Works - Claverton Group"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=38%25+HHV+Caterpillar+Bio-gas+Engine+Fitted+to+Sewage+Works+-+Claverton+Group&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.claverton-energy.com%2F38-hhv-caterpillar-bio-gas-engine-fitted-to-long-reach-sewage-works.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
568 <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.elforsk.se/nyhet/seminarie/Elforskdagen%20_10/webb_varme/d_welander.pdf">http://www.elforsk.se/nyhet/seminarie/Elforskdagen%20_10/webb_varme/d_welander.pdf</a> [swedish]</span></li>
569 <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opet-chp.net/download/wp3/iisalmifinland.pdf">"High cogeneration performance by innovative steam turbine for biomass-fired CHP plant in Iislami, Finland"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. OPET<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=High+cogeneration+performance+by+innovative+steam+turbine+for+biomass-fired+CHP+plant+in+Iislami%2C+Finland&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.opet-chp.net%2Fdownload%2Fwp3%2Fiisalmifinland.pdf&rft.pub=OPET&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
570 <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_951_3.pdf">"Transforming Greenhouse Gas Emissions into Energy"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>WIPO Green Case Studies, 2014</i>. World Intellectual Property Organization. 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.atitle=Transforming+Greenhouse+Gas+Emissions+into+Energy&rft.date=2014&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fedocs%2Fpubdocs%2Fen%2Fwipo_pub_951_3.pdf&rft.jtitle=WIPO+Green+Case+Studies%2C+2014&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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591 <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Bevelhymer, Carl (2003-11-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gothamgazette.com/article/issueoftheweek/20031110/200/674">"Steam"</a>. Gotham Gazette<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.aulast=Bevelhymer&rft.btitle=Steam&rft.date=2003-11-10&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gothamgazette.com%2Farticle%2Fissueoftheweek%2F20031110%2F200%2F674&rft.pub=Gotham+Gazette&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
592 <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Lowe, R. (2011). "Combined heat and power considered as a virtual steam cycle heat pump". <i>Energy Policy</i>. <b>39</b> (9): 5528–5534. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enpol.2011.05.007">10.1016/j.enpol.2011.05.007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.atitle=Combined+heat+and+power+considered+as+a+virtual+steam+cycle+heat+pump&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.enpol.2011.05.007&rft.issue=9&rft.jtitle=Energy+Policy&rft.pages=5528-5534&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=39" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
593 <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Nosrat, A.H.; Swan, L.G.; Pearce, J.M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/2337798/Improved_Performance_of_Hybrid_Photovoltaic-Trigeneration_Systems_Over_Photovoltaic-Cogen_Systems_Including_Effects_of_Battery_Storage">"Improved Performance of Hybrid Photovoltaic-Trigeneration Systems Over Photovoltaic-Cogen Systems Including Effects of Battery Storage"</a>. <i>Energy</i>. <b>49</b>: 366–374. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.energy.2012.11.005">10.1016/j.energy.2012.11.005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.atitle=Improved+Performance+of+Hybrid+Photovoltaic-Trigeneration+Systems+Over+Photovoltaic-Cogen+Systems+Including+Effects+of+Battery+Storage&rft.aufirst=A.H.&rft.aulast=Nosrat&rft.au=Pearce%2C+J.M.&rft.au=Swan%2C+L.G.&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2337798%2FImproved_Performance_of_Hybrid_Photovoltaic-Trigeneration_Systems_Over_Photovoltaic-Cogen_Systems_Including_Effects_of_Battery_Storage&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.energy.2012.11.005&rft.jtitle=Energy&rft.pages=366-374&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=49" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
594 <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Nosrat, Amir H.; Swan, Lukas G.; Pearce, Joshua M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7798128/Simulations_of_greenhouse_gas_emission_reductions_from_low-cost_hybrid_solar_photovoltaic_and_cogeneration_systems_for_new_communities">"Simulations of greenhouse gas emission reductions from low-cost hybrid solar photovoltaic and cogeneration systems for new communities"</a>. <i>Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments</i>. <b>8</b>: 34–41. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.seta.2014.06.008">10.1016/j.seta.2014.06.008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.atitle=Simulations+of+greenhouse+gas+emission+reductions+from+low-cost+hybrid+solar+photovoltaic+and+cogeneration+systems+for+new+communities&rft.aufirst=Amir+H.&rft.aulast=Nosrat&rft.au=Pearce%2C+Joshua+M.&rft.au=Swan%2C+Lukas+G.&rft.genre=article&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7798128%2FSimulations_of_greenhouse_gas_emission_reductions_from_low-cost_hybrid_solar_photovoltaic_and_cogeneration_systems_for_new_communities&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.seta.2014.06.008&rft.jtitle=Sustainable+Energy+Technologies+and+Assessments&rft.pages=34-41&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=8" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
595 <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hodge, B.K. (2009). <i>Alternative Energy Systems & Applications</i>. New York: Wiley-IEEE Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.aufirst=B.K.&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.btitle=Alternative+Energy+Systems+%26+Applications&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=book&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley-IEEE+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
596 <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrepq.com/icrepq-08/245-san-martin.pdf">"Trigeneration Systems with Fuel Cells"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Research Paper</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.atitle=Trigeneration+Systems+with+Fuel+Cells&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icrepq.com%2Ficrepq-08%2F245-san-martin.pdf&rft.jtitle=Research+Paper&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
597 <li id="cite_note-energy.gov-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-energy.gov_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-energy.gov_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100527095840/http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/turbines/turbines_howitworks.html">"DOE – Fossil Energy: How Turbine Power Plants Work"</a>. Fossil.energy.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/turbines/turbines_howitworks.html">the original</a> on May 27, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=DOE+%93+Fossil+Energy%3A+How+Turbine+Power+Plants+Work&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffossil.energy.gov%2Fprograms%2Fpowersystems%2Fturbines%2Fturbines_howitworks.html&rft.pub=Fossil.energy.gov&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (November 2015)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span></li>
598 <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogeneurope.eu/Downloadables/Publications/230908_Energy_Efficiency_Industrial_Forum_Security_of_Supply.pdf">"Energy Efficiency Industrial Forum Position Paper: energy efficiency – a vital component of energy security"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Energy+Efficiency+Industrial+Forum+Position+Paper%3A+energy+efficiency+%93+a+vital+component+of+energy+security&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogeneurope.eu%2FDownloadables%2FPublications%2F230908_Energy_Efficiency_Industrial_Forum_Security_of_Supply.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
599 <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogeneurope.eu/medialibrary/2011/04/21/2bc24419/240311%20COGEN%20Europe%20press%20release.pdf">2011 - Cogen -Experts discuss the central role cogeneration has to play in shaping EU energy policy</a></span></li>
600 <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogeneurope.eu/Downloadables/Publications/Cogeneration_Europe_Draft_paper_on_Security_of_Supply_in_EU_energy_policy.pdf">"COGEN Europe: Cogeneration in the European Union's Energy Supply Security"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=COGEN+Europe%3A+Cogeneration+in+the+European+Union%99s+Energy+Supply+Security&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogeneurope.eu%2FDownloadables%2FPublications%2FCogeneration_Europe_Draft_paper_on_Security_of_Supply_in_EU_energy_policy.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
601 <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://energia.fi/tilastot-ja-julkaisut/sahkotilastot/sahkontuotanto/sahkon-hankinta-energialahteittain">"Electricity Generation by Energy Source"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Electricity+Generation+by+Energy+Source&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenergia.fi%2Ftilastot-ja-julkaisut%2Fsahkotilastot%2Fsahkontuotanto%2Fsahkon-hankinta-energialahteittain&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
602 <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/kwkg_2002/__1.html">"KWKG 2002"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=KWKG+2002&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gesetze-im-internet.de%2Fkwkg_2002%2F__1.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
603 <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/uk/energy/chp/index.htm">"DEFRA Action in the UK - Combined Heat and Power"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=DEFRA+Action+in+the+UK+-+Combined+Heat+and+Power&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defra.gov.uk%2Fenvironment%2Fclimatechange%2Fuk%2Fenergy%2Fchp%2Findex.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
604 <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fch-ju.eu/sites/default/files/documents/sga2012/Presentation%20Fiona%20Riddoch-%20Session%20II.pdf">5th stakeholders general assembly of the FCH JU</a></span></li>
605 <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://enefield.eu/">"ene.field"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=ene.field&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenefield.eu%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
606 <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h2fc-fair.com/hm13/images/ppt/10we/1420-1.pdf">European-wide field trials for residential fuel cell micro-CHP</a></span></li>
607 <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://enefield.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Progress-Report-1-M1-M6-Final.pdf">ene.field Grant No 303462</a></span></li>
608 <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chpqa.decc.gov.uk">UK DECC CHPQA website</a></span></li>
609 <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cogeneration.net/ThomasEdisonsCogenPlant.htm">"World's First Commercial Power Plant Was a Cogeneration Plant"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogeneration_Technologies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cogeneration Technologies (page does not exist)">Cogeneration Technologies</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.atitle=World%99s+First+Commercial+Power+Plant+Was+a+Cogeneration+Plant&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogeneration.net%2FThomasEdisonsCogenPlant.htm&rft.jtitle=Cogeneration+Technologies&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
610 <li id="cite_note-localpower-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-localpower_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-localpower_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.localpower.org/documents/report_worldsurvey06.pdf">"World Survey of Decentralized Energy"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=World+Survey+of+Decentralized+Energy&rft.date=2006-05&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.localpower.org%2Fdocuments%2Freport_worldsurvey06.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
611 <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gulfcoastcleanenergy.org/WhatisCHP/StateInformation/OtherStates/tabid/1349/Default.aspx">Eight Clean Energy Application Centers</a></span></li>
612 <li id="cite_note-electricitydata-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-electricitydata_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_5_6_a">"Electricity Data"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=Electricity+Data&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.gov%2Felectricity%2Fmonthly%2Fepm_table_grapher.cfm%3Ft%3Depmt_5_6_a&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
613 <li id="cite_note-energysaving-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-energysaving_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newenglandcondo.com/articles/773/1/Energy-Saving-Incentives/Page1.html">"New England Energy"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.btitle=New+England+Energy&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewenglandcondo.com%2Farticles%2F773%2F1%2FEnergy-Saving-Incentives%2FPage1.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
614 <li id="cite_note-npr2008may22-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-npr2008may22_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90714692">'Recycling' Energy Seen Saving Companies Money</a>. By David Schaper. May 22, 2008. <a href="/wiki/Morning_Edition" title="Morning Edition">Morning Edition</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Public_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="National Public Radio">National Public Radio</a>.</span></li>
615 <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Masters, Gilbert (2004). <i>Renewable and efficient electric power systems</i>. New York: Wiley-IEEE Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACogeneration&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.btitle=Renewable+and+efficient+electric+power+systems&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=book&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley-IEEE+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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631 <a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a>
632 </div> </th>
633 </tr>
634 <tr style="height:2px">
635 <td colspan="2"></td>
636 </tr>
637 <tr>
638 <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Concepts</th>
639 <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
640 <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
641 <ul>
642 <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">Availability factor</a></li>
643 <li><a href="/wiki/Base_load_power_plant" title="Base load power plant">Baseload</a></li>
644 <li><a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li>
645 <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a></li>
646 <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_factor" title="Demand factor">Demand factor</a></li>
647 <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Demand management</a></li>
648 <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_returned_on_energy_invested" title="Energy returned on energy invested">EROEI</a></li>
649 <li><a href="/wiki/Fault_(power_engineering)" title="Fault (power engineering)">Fault</a></li>
650 <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid storage</a></li>
651 <li><a href="/wiki/Intermittent_energy_source" title="Intermittent energy source">Intermittency</a></li>
652 <li><a href="/wiki/Load_factor_(electrical)" title="Load factor (electrical)">Load factor</a></li>
653 <li><a href="/wiki/Load_following_power_plant" title="Load following power plant">Load following</a></li>
654 <li><a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">Nameplate capacity</a></li>
655 <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_demand" title="Peak demand">Peak demand</a></li>
656 <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_quality" title="Electric power quality">Power quality</a></li>
657 <li><a href="/wiki/Power-flow_study" title="Power-flow study">Power-flow study</a></li>
658 <li><a href="/wiki/Repowering" title="Repowering">Repowering</a></li>
659 <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_spread" title="Spark spread">Spark spread</a></li>
660 <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variability</a></li>
661 </ul>
662 </div> </td>
663 </tr>
664 <tr style="height:2px">
665 <td colspan="2"></td>
666 </tr>
667 <tr>
668 <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Sources</th>
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681 <li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li>
682 <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil-fuel_power_station" title="Fossil-fuel power station">Fossil-fuel power station</a></li>
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684 <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li>
685 <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li>
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708 <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic</a></li>
709 <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean thermal energy">Thermal</a></li>
710 <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li>
711 <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave</a></li>
712 </ul> </li>
713 <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li>
714 <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li>
715 </ul>
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722 <td colspan="2"></td>
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724 <tr>
725 <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology" title="Category:Power station technology">Technology</a></th>
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727 <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
728 <ul>
729 <li><a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a></li>
730 <li><strong class="selflink">Cogeneration</strong></li>
731 <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle" title="Combined cycle">Combined cycle</a></li>
732 <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li>
733 <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">Induction generator</a></li>
734 <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro CHP</a></li>
735 <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li>
736 <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li>
737 <li><a href="/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase electric power</a></li>
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739 </ul>
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749 <br>
750 <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a>
751 </div> </th>
752 <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
753 <div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
754 <ul>
755 <li><a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Blackout</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rolling_blackout" title="Rolling blackout">Rolling blackout</a>)</li>
756 <li><a href="/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">Brownout</a></li>
757 <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a></li>
758 <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a></li>
759 <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)" title="Dynamic demand (electric power)">Dynamic demand</a></li>
760 <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">Electric power distribution</a></li>
761 <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li>
762 <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a></li>
763 <li><a href="/wiki/Load_management" title="Load management">Load management</a></li>
764 <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped hydro</a></li>
765 <li><a href="/wiki/Power_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Power storage">Power storage</a></li>
766 <li><a href="/wiki/Negawatt_power" title="Negawatt power">Negawatts</a></li>
767 <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li>
768 <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" title="Electrical substation">Substation</a></li>
769 <li><a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">Super grid</a></li>
770 <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li>
771 <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_system_operator" title="Transmission system operator">TSO</a></li>
772 <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">Transmission tower</a></li>
773 <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">Utility pole</a></li>
774 </ul>
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784 <ul>
785 <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offset" title="Carbon offset">Carbon offset</a></li>
786 <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotax" title="Ecotax">Ecotax</a></li>
787 <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidies" title="Energy subsidies">Energy subsidies</a></li>
788 <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li>
789 <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil-fuel_phase-out" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil-fuel phase-out">Fossil-fuel phase-out</a></li>
790 <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li>
791 <li><a href="/wiki/Pigovian_tax" title="Pigovian tax">Pigovian tax</a></li>
792 <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificates" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable Energy Certificates">Renewable Energy Certificates</a></li>
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794 <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy policy">Renewable energy policy</a></li>
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827 <a href="/wiki/Portal:Sustainable_development" title="Portal:Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a>
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990 <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cogeneration_plants" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li>
991 </ul>
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994 <div class="portal" role="navigation" id="p-lang" aria-labelledby="p-lang-label">
995 <h3 id="p-lang-label">Languages</h3>
996 <div class="body">
997 <ul>
998 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%83" title="توليد مشترك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li>
999 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="ЦеплаÑлектрацÑнтраль – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">БеларуÑкаÑ</a></li>
1000 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="ЦеплаÑлектрацÑнтраль – беларуÑÐºÐ°Ñ (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">БеларуÑÐºÐ°Ñ (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li>
1001 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="ÐšÐ¾Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑ€Ð°Ñ†Ð¸Ñ â€“ Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">БългарÑки</a></li>
1002 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracija" title="Kogeneracija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li>
1003 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneraci%C3%B3" title="Cogeneració – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català </a></li>
1004 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogenerace" title="Kogenerace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li>
1005 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraftvarmev%C3%A6rk" title="Kraftvarmeværk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li>
1006 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraft-W%C3%A4rme-Kopplung" title="Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li>
1007 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soojuse_ja_elektri_koostootmine" title="Soojuse ja elektri koostootmine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li>
1008 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneraci%C3%B3n" title="Cogeneración – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li>
1009 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterako_sorkuntza" title="Baterako sorkuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li>
1010 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D9%87%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%88_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82" title="تولید هم‌زمان گرما Ùˆ برق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">Ùارسی</a></li>
1011 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cog%C3%A9n%C3%A9ration" title="Cogénération – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li>
1012 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxeraci%C3%B3n" title="Coxeración – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li>
1013 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B4%EB%B3%91%ED%95%A9" title="열병합 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">í•œêµì–´</a></li>
1014 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Õ‹Õ¥Ö€Õ´Õ¡Ö†Õ«Õ¯Õ¡ÖÕ¸Ö‚Õ´ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Õ€Õ¡ÕµÕ¥Ö€Õ¥Õ¶</a></li>
1015 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracija" title="Kogeneracija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li>
1016 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogenerazione" title="Cogenerazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li>
1017 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="×§×•×’× ×¨×¦×™×” – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li>
1018 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojenerasyon" title="Kojenerasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li>
1019 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracin%C4%97_elektrin%C4%97" title="Kogeneracinė elektrinė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li>
1020 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapcsolt_energiatermel%C3%A9s" title="Kapcsolt energiatermelés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li>
1021 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warmte-krachtkoppeling" title="Warmte-krachtkoppeling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li>
1022 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%8D%E3%83%AC%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3" title="コジェãƒãƒ¬ãƒ¼ã‚·ãƒ§ãƒ³ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li>
1023 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogenerasjon" title="Kogenerasjon – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li>
1024 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracja" title="Kogeneracja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li>
1025 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="ÐšÐ¾Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑ€Ð°Ñ†Ð¸Ñ â€“ Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">РуÑÑкий</a></li>
1026 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrongroh%C3%ABsi" title="Hidrongrohësi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li>
1027 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li>
1028 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogener%C3%A1cia" title="Kogenerácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">SlovenÄina</a></li>
1029 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soproizvodnja_toplote_in_elektri%C4%8Dne_energije" title="Soproizvodnja toplote in elektriÄne energije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">SlovenÅ¡Äina</a></li>
1030 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracija" title="Kogeneracija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">СрпÑки / srpski</a></li>
1031 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogeneracija" title="Kogeneracija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / ÑрпÑкохрватÑки</a></li>
1032 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4mp%C3%B6voimalaitos" title="Lämpövoimalaitos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li>
1033 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraftv%C3%A4rmeverk" title="Kraftvärmeverk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li>
1034 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojenerasyon" title="Kojenerasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li>
1035 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="ÐšÐ¾Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑ€Ð°Ñ†Ñ–Ñ â€“ Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">УкраїнÑька</a></li>
1036 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%93ng_ph%C3%A1t" title="Äồng phát – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li>
1037 <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E7%94%B5%E8%81%94%E4%BA%A7" title="çƒç”µè”产 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">ä¸æ–‡</a></li>
1038 <li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li>
1039 </ul>
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