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17BIOL 2903
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39BIOL 2903 – Lecture 1
40Black capped chickadee that is Leucistic – Genetic defect where they can produce dark colouration but not transport it around to feathers as they go
41Theme on course is animals. Ontario has a wide diversity of animals. Ontario has the only lizard in eastern Ontario: the 5-lined skink. Also have whales (Ex. beluga in James bay)
42Animals = Fauna
43Plants = Flora
44Have diverse lifestyles and ways to get nutrients
45Will talk about why we have carnivorous plants in certain environments
46Total number of species of flora and fauna = BIODIVERSITY
47Biodiversity is short for Biological Diversity = Total number and variety of living things (flora and fauna) found in an area
48Ontario’s Biodiversity = > 100,000 species!
49Don’t need to memorize numbers
50Reptiles and Amphibians = Herptiles = Herps = 50 species
51Ex. snakes, turtles, frogs, salamanders
52Fish = 154 species
53Mammals = 81 species
54Birds (very big group in province) = 490 species
55Invertebrates (includes insects) = tens of thousands of species
56Odonates (includes dragonflies) = 172 species
57Butterflies = 148 species
58Moths = ~1000 species
59Beetles = 1000s of species
60Plants
61Vascular plants (includes ferns) = >3000 species
62Bryophytes (includes mosses and lichens) = >800 species
63Fungus
64Total vascular plants, bryophytes, and fungi >10,000 species
65New species being discovered every year (Ex. micro-fungi)
66Why Such a rich biodiversity in Ontario?
67Class Discussion
68Varying habitats (number of factors effecting habitats)
69Seasonality: different temperature and precipitation throughout the year
70Large bodies of water (Great Lakes) and large areas of land
71Prof’s list
721.) Size (Ontario >1 million km2)
73Ontario is a very large province
74Generally, the smaller the area, the smaller the biodiversity
75However small area in the tropics would have larger biodiversity than Ontario
76
772.) Great range of Abiotic Factors – Range of environmental conditions such as temperature, precipitation, wind (can make it colder, dryer, firer, aid plant spreading), soil type (very important, unless getting nutrients from insects flying by, you need to depend on what is in the soil and some soil not good for growing), fire, rocks (made of minerals that affect the nutrient supply and soil chemistry. As rocks break down, minerals are liberated and plants can get at them. Rocks also affect the pH of the soil which is important because some soils are highly acidic and only certain plants can survive in acidic conditions. Also, some soils are high in pH and only certain plants can survive when high levels of calcium)
78Abiotic = Non-living
79Ex. In July 10oC difference between southern and northern Ontario
80Ex. Much more precipitation around the Great Lakes than up by
81Hudson’s Bay
82Bedrock – The rock under any given area
83Some bedrock is flat and often layered
84Ex. can see flat, layered bedrock while driving along the 401
85These rocks are formed from sediments and called
86Sedimentary Rock
87Settle on bottom of water as sediments
88Are “young” rocks (400-500 million years old)
89Limestone is an important sedimentary rock. This rock is rich in calcium (calcium carbonate) and is relatively soft (break down more readily when exposed to water or wind, and break down minerals more readily) and basic in pH
90Some plants crave (need) calcium
91When you pour HCl on it, it reacts (Effervesces – Gives off bubbles) and produces carbon dioxide gas as a biproduct. Tells us there is calcium carbonate in the rock
92Some limestone is made from animals whose fossil remains are full of calcium (becoming part of the rock)
93Calciphiles – Plants that love calcium
94Ex. Poison Ivy loves basic soil and calcium
95When we find plants in a certain area of Ontario, rocks beneath the soil are releasing minerals (found in certain areas based on rock type)
96Other rocks were formed from molten rock (magma) deep underground
97
98These rocks are NOT layered
99Igneous Rocks usually lack calcium, have lots of Silica and are Hard and Acidic
100Magma cools down, hardening
101Very durable, wear down slowly
102When you pour HCl on them, nothing happens
103Granite is a common Igneous rock
104Igneous are “old” rocks (1-3 billion years)
105Some plants thrive in acidic soil
106“ome Igneous rocks were formed on top of Earth’s
107surface (Ex. from magma flows)
108Basalt is a volcanic rock (but is not acidic, formed in different conditions)
109Metamorphic – A third type of rock is formed from pre-existing rock (igneous or sedimentary), transformed by heat and pressure
110Ex. folding from plate tectonics
111Retain the chemical characteristics of their parent rock
112Pressure and heat separate components but they eventually line up so you see lines of colour in the rock
113Look like they’re layered but are not
114Granite becomes Gneiss (when exposed to great heat and pressure) which is acidic and lacks calcium
115Nothing happens when you pour HCl on it (same chemistry as igneous rock)
116Limestone can also be metamorphosed becoming
117Marble
118Does effervesce when pour HCl on it (calcium carbonate still present)
119Besides effecting soil chemistry, different kinds of rocks have different shapes also affecting wind and water movement
120Sedimentary rocks usually underlie flat terrain known as
121Lowlands
122Igneous and Metamorphic rocks usually underlies hilly terrain known as Highlands
123Rocks can create Relief – When hilly create a break from flat substrate, giving microclimates – Ex. hill area: one side could get more sun than the other, be more moist, be more dry, be colder (shade side), be warmer, etc.
124Ex. Ferns grow on one side but not other
1253.) Biotic Factors – Also can change the environment.
126Ex. when lichen die, nutrients from their bodies can also be added to the system (soil)
127
128Lichen can not only change the physical nature of the rock or soil they’re on, but also the chemistry
129Ex. Birds digging for worms can devastate certain areas of top soil
130Ex. Humans feeding animals. Birdfeeders can affect distribution of them in Ontario. Changing forests into farmer’s fields cause species to leave and new ones to come
131Overburden – What lies on top of the bedrock. Generally glacial deposits
132Glaciers are moving walls of ice that had an immense impact on Ontario
133See huge boulder beds in some areas from water draining from glaciers (not from glacier itself), moving and sorting material
134The lay of the land and glacial “gifts” (left behind by glaciers) affect drainage
135Important factor for how much water is available
136Drainage affects what grows atop deposits
137Sand is very dry soil
138It is porous (does not hold water)
139Glacial Till (particles are not sorted by size, dumped randomly, plugging all holes for water to be absorbed) can trap moisture
140Ex. Influence of till in Algonquin Park causes great mix of hardwood trees that need moisture
141Clay does not drain well (see water lying everywhere)
142Water important in sorting. Can sort sand from gravel, and boulders from everything else
143Water is one of the most powerful forces in Ontario
144Comes in many forms (rain, snow)
145Can crack rock open (freezes and expands, causing pressure)
146Water moves and sorts material
147Boulder beds mean water flowed through the area, carrying away all the small stuff
148In order of size: Boulders, gravel, sand, silt, clay
149land
150Physiographic Regions – Can break down Ontario based on rock type (bedrock) and lay of the
151o	Hudson Bay Lowland
152
153Great Lakes-St Lawrence Lowland (Separated by highland of Canadian Shield)
154First part is Ottawa-St Lawrence Lowland
155Second part is Great Lakes Lowland
156Canadian Shield (Area of very hard, acidic rock that has been transformed and thrusted up)
157Different regions have different rock types below them so different plants grow
158Lowlands (very flat) don’t drain very well (Hudson’s Bay lowland one of largest, continuous wetlands in the World)
159Also classify Ontario based on animals that live and plants that grow there, primarily the trees that grow there and form canopies
160
161
162BIOL 2903 – Lecture 2
163Forest Regions (a.k.a. ecological regions) – Break down province into regions based on trees that grow there, especially dominant trees that form the canopy
164Tundra up by Hudson’s Bay
165Hudson Bay Lowland
166Boreal (Forest)
167Great Lakes – St. Lawrence
168Broken into two: Component east of Lake Superior, and larger component west
169Carolinian
170Recall water is very important for Ontario’s biodiversity
171It is habitat for plants and animals
172Large bodies of water modify land temperatures and winds
173Water also indirectly creates habitat
174Erratic: Randomly find boulders in forests that water moved there
175Striations (scratches): Found when ice moved across there. Done by water in solid form, not liquid (done by ice)
176Over the past million years, ice covered all of Ontario many times (glaciers)
177Ice Age (the Pleistocene): glaciers dominated
178Great Lakes Video
179Glaciers cut into the ground, leaving behind the Great Lakes after melting
180With weight of glacier gone, land sprung back up again, cutting off flow of the water going North, making it flow South (had been depressed more in the North until the glacier was gone)
181Human intervention (Ex. dams) changes the flow of water
182Weight of glaciers depresses that land
183Isostatic Rebound – Weight of glacier is gone and the land that was depressed has risen up
184The glaciers scoured the rocks (pushed off soil) and destroyed all life in Ontario
185Pushed off all the soil
186All trees were gone so animals that lived in those trees were also gone
187Only a small drop in average temperature can spawn glaciers (does not take much)
188When they left there was bare rocks and areas where they dumped boulders and glacial till, but there was no life
189How life came back: The bare rock was colonized by Lichen (two different organisms, algae and fungus, living together as partners. See the fungus, inside is filled by algae or another thing called cyanobacteria which makes food through photosynthesis. These two parts are not found living separately, only together)
190Colonizers – First things to come in and live in an area
191Lichen – Symbiotic relationships between fungi and algae (or cyanobacteria)
192The fungus provides a house for the algae, protecting from damage from direct sunlight. Do not get any nutrients for food production from the rock, it all comes from the air
193The algae provides food (carbon products) via photosynthesis
194
195Only organism you can take, dry out, and then add water many years later and it comes back to life
196Crustose Lichens – Colonize bare rock
197Tightly on top of the rock, cannot scrape off, change rocks colour
198Pioneer Species – Any organism that is first to colonize an area
199Foliose Lichens – Leaf like (think “foliage”)
200Some are edible
201Fruticose Lichens – All have 3-D appearance to them (“standing up”)
202Reindeer Lichen important food for Caribou
203Arboreal Lichens – Grow on trees
204Crustose Lichens are colonizers = Pioneer species
205Mosses often grow with lichens
206Mosses aren’t composed by multiple species like lichen are
207Some species of mosses are colonizers = pioneer species
208A lot of microscopic material (Ex. sand) is blown by wind. Presence of lichen and moss traps this material so soil formation can begin
209Lichens and mosses physically trap wind-blown particles (called loess) and provide a site for other living things to grow (amongst lichen and mosses because other plants do need soil to grow)
210Habitats change from bare rock to fairly complex ecosystems, expanding and getting new components (Ex. bigger plants) continuously coming in. Eventually trees start growing
211Lichens initiate. Change in a given area in the living organisms that live there is called Succession.
212Water and plants continues to break down the rock. The dissolved and physically broken rocks help form more soil
213Start with bare rock and then eventually end up with forests covering the land. When you have habitats, you start having animals appear. Each habitat generally supports a wide array of organisms
214Glacial Refugia – Areas that escape glaciation where organisms come from after glacier leaves area
215First things that come from wind (Ex. lichens blown in from a distance)
216When you look at the types of plants that are first on the scene, they are all wind blown (better chance of getting there from far away)
217Poplars and White Birches are often the first trees to colonize new soil because they have seeds blown by the wind
218Pioneer Species of trees
219Pioneer species of plants have to be sun-loving plants (nothing in the area to begin with so no shade)
220They create shade but they are sun-lovers
221Shade-tolerant trees such as spruce and fir grow under them
222Other species start arriving whose seeds are also blown by wind that can tolerate some shade (Ex. Coniferous trees: grow
223
224beneath poplars and birch trees at a slower rate but around longer)
225Eventually get a mixed forest
226The shade-tolerant trees eventually outlive the pioneers (outgrowing and taking over)
227What comes in beneath the sun-lovers depends on factors such as temperature and moisture (not always coniferous, sometimes maple which can grow in shade)
228Maple trees did not arrive in Ontario until thousands of years after wind blown seeds because “keys” (seeds) don’t move that far in the wind
229Also have animals carrying seeds (Ex. squirrels carry acorns)
230Shade-tolerant (can survive in shade as saplings) trees such as Maples or spruces replace shade-intolerant (sun-loving) trees such as Trembling Aspen (poplar)
231Site Conditions – Environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation, etc.), Bedrock type, Soil type, Glacial deposits, Physiography of the land (hilly or low-lying), Drainage, etc.
232What it is like at the site where the trees are found
233Cause many different forest types
234In Ontario have hardwood forests, coniferous forests, and mixed forests
235If forest is able to sustain/replace itself through time (unless a major glaciation comes through or major change in the environment), it is the final stage called a Climax Forest
236Ex. Maple sapling can grow in shade beneath adult maples
237Recall the dominant canopy-forming trees are used the define Forest Regions
238Bedrock lying below them has a great influence on the plants that grow there and the animals in each forest region
239The most northerly “Ecological” or Forest Region is the Tundra, which lies in the Hudson Bay Lowland Physiographic Region
240Flat, sedimentary rock lies below (limestone dominant)
241Lacks a tree canopy but it does have trees
242Some so small, you are walking through them
243Indicator Species – Species of animals and plants only found in certain forest regions of Ontario
244Dominant (main) type of trees are Willows
245Southernmost subarctic (below arctic circle) tundra in the world
246The Northern limit (boundary) of the Tundra is Hudson Bay
247The Southern limit (boundary) is the “Tree Line”
248The tree line is a poorly defined border that meanders at varying distance (10-32 km) from the coast
249Polar Bear Provincial Park protects some of it
250Cold: average daily temperature = -6oC (not that cold in July for example)
251
252Soil is moist and with the temperature being so cold, ground stays frozen (called
253Permafrost) year round
254Implications such as no moles since they cannot dig
255Frozen soil = Little decomposition = few nutrients and virtually no soil buildup
256Low and Flat: 0-60 metres above sea level (ASL)
257But it is rising because of Isostatic rebound (last part of Ontario the glacier sat on as it melted North) at a rate of about 1.2m/100yr
258And this means Ontario is moving North (more land appearing at the Northern edge of Ontario) at a rate of 400m/100yr
259(Very) Windy: Coldest windchill in North America
260Really affects animals because it takes away body heat
261The wind blows abrasive particles
262Affects how tall plants and animals can be (will blow over if too tall)
263Clay and Silt deposits range from 5 to 75m thick
264Great beds of finely grained material, block water, resulting in lots of standing water on top
2658000 years ago a glacial sea (Tyrrell Sea) covered all of the Hudson Bay Lowland Physiographic Region
266Stopped there. As sea came inland it was stop by highland of the Canadian Shield. Left behind all this clay and sand on sedimentary rock
267Flat, poor drainage + frozen ground + clay = lots of water
268
269
270BIOL 2903 – Lecture 3
271Tundra Zone Cont’d
272Permafrost means ground stays (is always) frozen
273Flat ground with poor drainage + frozen ground + clay = lots of water
274Think of being dry because everything is frozen but actually very wet, especially after snow melts
275Have Northern diving ducks such as Greater Scaup
276Greater Scaup primarily found nesting along the edge of Hudson Bay (good indicator species)
277Long-tailed duck appearance changes from summer to winter in both the male and female which is odd for ducks. Also strictly nest along the coast of Hudson Bay. Not along the entire coast in maps (only in certain parts) because of lack of human observation (many parts are hard to get to, few landing strips in Northern Ontario)
278Scoters another diving duck
279Also have Tundra Swans only found in Ontario along the coast of Hudson Bay (also in sub-arctic in arctic, but only this area of Ontario)
280There are lots of Geese including the Canada Goose and Snow Goose
281Not indicator species because found in many parts of Ontario
282Snow Goose are mostly white but also have blue-morph (color phase)
283Millions of geese now nest in the Tundra
284# of eggs depends on condition of females
285When female arrives in the Tundra, the amount of fat they put on in the winter determines the number of eggs they produce. The fatter, the more eggs they produce
286Due to transformation of forest to farmland and prairies to corn fields
287Has caused Geese populations grow exponentially
288Geese have negative effects on the Tundra
289Dramatically changing it, digging up the surface only to feed on tubers (underground part of plants)
290Dig up plant tubers = physical disturbance
291Defecation adds nitrogen to ecosystem (causing chemical change)
292Plants that cannot grow in areas of high nitrogen die, while those that thrive in nitrogen rich areas are increasing in number
293No turtles (water is shallow and cold)
294No salamanders (usually burrow in the ground)
295No snakes
2962 species of frogs who can survive freezing
297Freeze Tolerant – Ability to survive when ice forms in their body
298
299Ex. Wood Frog, Boreal Chorus Frog
300Rivers flow into Hudson Bay (Ex. Winisk River)
301½ of rivers in Canada flow into Hudson Bay
302All this water flows this way because the area is still depressed, but mainly because there is a ridge of land called the height of land
303North of ridge, rivers flow North
304South of ridge, rivers flow South, into the Great Lakes
305The Arctic Watershed
306Freshwater rivers are habitat
307Faster the water, the bigger the particles it can move
308Typically, no dams on rivers of the tundra zone
309These rivers would have fish
310Are occasionally beavers up there, as well as otters
311These rivers are all freshwater, affecting Hudson Bay by making it less salty
312Due to freshwater input from rivers, Hudson Bay = 1/3 the salinity of oceans
313Implication of this is it freezes, completely freezes over in the winter
314Forces animals such as ducks to migrate
315Even still one challenge Hudson Bay presents to plants and animals is salt
316Hudson Bay itself is a habitat
317Sea Ducks such as Eiders nest along the coast of Hudson Bay
318Have lots of thick feathers for warmth, including lots of down feathers under outer feathers for warmth
319Three species of loons nest along the coast of Hudson Bay
320The common loon, red-throated loon, and the Pacific loon
321Loons eat salt-water fish
322Salts glands remove the salt (then excrete it out their bill)
323All of the aquatic birds are only present in the summer because it freezes over
324Hudson Bay is habitat for marine mammals
325Ringed and Bearded Seals
326All along the coast so indicator species
327Walruses
328A colony of Atlantic Walrus is found off Cape Henrietta Maria
329Use teeth to pull themselves across the ice and stir up food around in the muck
330Food is mostly clams
331Beluga Whales
332Seals and Walruses are food for Polar bears
333Southernmost population of polar bears in the world
334On ice when packed, hunting seals. When ice melts, go back to
335land to give birth and don’t feed much
336Both Beluga Whales and Polar Bears are also Indicator Species because have to go to coast of Hudson Bay to see them in Ontario
337Polar Bear Provincial Park is Ontario’s largest park
338
339Are Ontario’s Polar Bears really protected? No, some years ice is late to form and leaves early and they depend on the ice pack to feed. When frozen, sometimes travel all the way over to Quebec where they are not protected, getting hunted by indigenous groups
340Coastal sand deposits form Sand Dunes
341These are dryer because they are more elevated
342Certain plants who don’t like moisture grow here
343American Dune Grass colonizes sand
344Grows along Hudson Bay coast but oddly also Lake Superior coast
345Raised beach ridges are important habitats for plants and animals including Polar Bears
346Dig out one side as a den to give birth in
347The ridges offer nesting sites for Arctic Terns that feed along the coast and rivers
348They are often robbed of fish by Parasitic Jaegers (cross between gull and hawk because they have a hooked bill and are predatory). Harass Terns until they drop their fish then pick them up
349The coastal flats and dunes are habitat for plants
350Some Plants are salt-tolerant = Halophytic
351Ex. For when storms come in splashing water up
352Salt-tolerant plants have fleshy (thick) leaves. Important for protection from abrasive particles blown by the wind and hold water (once filled up to maintain their processes). Also have salts glands for removing salt
353Seaside Lungwort (a.k.a. Oysterleaf or Bluebells)
354The “lawn” is goosegrass, another halophytic plant
355Source of food for geese
356Further inland there are raised beach ridges far from water
357Left behind by Isostatic Rebound
358This land used to be the coast. When the Tyrrell Sea slowly retreated, the temporary shift in the shoreline caused new raised ridges
359Erratic – Big boulder (size of house) left behind by a glacier, where the rock it is sitting on is not the kind of rock it is made of
360Also called Stranded Beach Ridges because they are far from water
361Important sites for Arctic Foxes
362Have many features for surviving in the Tundra
363Very dense fur that is white in winter (no color pigment in hair so hollow, trapping heat better)
364Small extremities (snout, ears, legs)
365Tail is not small because they wrap it around their face while sleeping
366Allow sites for denning: Ridges allow foxes to dig into to make dens
367
368Stranded beach ridges provide nesting sites for shorebirds
369Sandpipers and Plovers
370Ex. Nest of a Semipalmated Plover
371About a dozen species of sandpipers and plovers nest in this region
372Being Southern most Tundra area in the world, offers nesting opportunities for these really Northern birds that do not occur further South during the nesting season
373Ex. Hudsonian Godwits pretty well along the entire Tundra of Ontario. Have long legs and beaks for going it in a little deeper water to get the invertebrates they eat
374Ex. Dunlin have down curved bills for getting down in the mud. Nest on sedge and moss hummocks
375Hummock – Raised bit of vegetation formed by the plant themselves
376Also do Least Sandpipers
377When the tide goes out, the vast mudflats provide important feeding sites for sandpipers and plovers
378Full of worms and other invertebrates
379Different lengths and shapes of bills means they are probing different parts of the mud, getting different resources out of the same mud
380One reason why there are so many kinds of shorebirds nesting on the Hudson Bay coastline
381Area can support a diversity of species because they feed in different ways = Niche Partitioning
382Different bill sizes allows for niche partitioning
383Plovers feed on what’s on the surface, while the others go into the mud
384Further inland the Tundra is higher and drier
385Glacier has been gone for a longer period of time (more time for isostatic rebound)
386Mosses and lichens (the colonizers of harsh environments) are dominant groups
387Sphagnum Mosses are important wetland colonizers
388They also help keep the ground frozen (insulate the ground)
389Sphagnum dominates and creates its own habitat – peatland
390When growth > decomposition, the moss layer gets thicker,
391creating its own form of “soil” – Organic Soil
392Peat is just dead sphagnum moss
393Lichen Plateaus (Lichen Fields) are a major feature
394One large and important group is the Reindeer Lichens
395In the summer, Caribou move into the Tundra to graze on these
396Woodland Caribou have been called “lichen burners” because of their fondness of lichens (eat them in winter as well)
397
398Caribou migrate from the Hudson Bay Lowland and Boreal Forest to the Tundra in the late spring. After summer they head back south
399Find orange lichen (that likes calcium) growing on caribou antlers in the Tundra
400Woodland Caribou Adaptations
401Surface area to volume is about a 1:1 ratio
402Have small extremities
403Large hooved feet
404Have great big toe nails that are like scoops allowing for walking on softer terrain (snow shoe like effect because large foot surface area) and scooping out snow to get at lichens
405In winter they grow hair on the bottom of their feet so they
406don’t skid much on ice
407Caribou are the biggest herbivorous animals in the Tundra
408A predatory animal that likes to eat caribou is Gray Wolves
409What birds would you NOT find here? (in the Tundra zone)
410Birds that need trees (live in forests), you would not expect to find
411Ex. Woodpeckers need trees to get invertebrates out of
412Have ground nesting, sparrow like birds like American Pipit, Longspurs (long toenail to scrape ground to get seeds) and Horned Larks (Occur all the way to Windsor so not indicators of Tundra zone)
413Birds want to broadcast songs for territorial announcement. Sing from up in the air (flying, since cannot sit in trees)
414
415
416BIOL 2903 – Lecture 4
417Hudson Bay is the breeding range southern limit for a lot of Northern shorebirds
418Southern Limits of Range – Goes no further south
419Northern Limits of Range – Goes no further north
420Ex. Hudsonian Godwit Breeds along Hudson Bay coast but winters in South America, travelling a large distance. Don’t stay up in the Tundra all year because it is too cold, causing Hudson Bay and inland ponds to freeze, so mud flats they need to feed are gone (all frozen)
421Tundra Swan is a Northern bird, with Hudson Bay being its southern most breeding range
422Most Northern Grouse in the world is the Willow Ptarmigan
423Very hardy staying in the Tundra year-round, need adaptations to deal with the conditions
424Feathered legs, feet, and toes
425(Both sexes) Turn totally white in the winter, offering camouflage and insulation
426The Tundra also offers severe challenges for plants
427Have to contend with: High winds with abrasive particles, cold temperature, permafrost, hard to get nutrients, short growing season (< 140 days)
428Common and dominant (in terms in abundance and number of species) group are the
429Saxifrages
430Adaptations for the cold environment:
4311. Cold Hardiness (plant equivalence of freeze tolerance)
432Some trees tolerate -80oC
4332. Small Size
434Dwarf Birch, Arctic Willow, and Labrador Willow exhibit Dwarfism. Two types:
435Genotypic Dwarfism – Fixed genetically how big it will grow no matter how much growing conditions improve
436Ex. Dwarf Labrador Tea grows no large if planted farther south
437Phenotypic Dwarfism – If growing conditions are better, it will grow taller
438Ex. Dwarf Birches grow larger farther south
4393. Low, creeping, sprawling growth
440Can have many leaves but are spread down low to the ground, not growing high
441Ex. Crowberry is a subarctic plant that exhibits sprawling growth
4424. Clump Growth
443Grow as a circular form
444An advantage of clumping over sprawling is outside is protecting the inside (outsides buffer the insides, making it a better environment)
445Outside may suffer but inside is protected and maybe a bit warmer because the wind is broken down
446
447The dead outer part of the clump offers shelter to the rest of the plant
448Ex. White spruce (phenotypic, would grow large south)
4495. Retains leaves year round
450Keep leaves to retain nutrients
451Heath plants such as Labrador Tea retain evergreen leaves
452Masters of surviving in harsh conditions
453Get nutrients in the Tundra partially through Mycorrhiza (fungus) on roots and retain leaves year-round because they cost energy to grow and manufacture food
454Can grow in new ones the next summer and drop the old ones
455Deciduous trees drop leaves in fall and regrow them in the spring. In the Tundra this is difficult because of the energy involved
4566. Dark colours absorb “warmer” wavelengths of light
457Many plants in the Tundra have darker colours, especially towards purple
458Anthocyanin – A pigment is common in sub-arctic plants because it absorbs certain red wavelengths of light, producing heat for the plant for survival
459Ex. Seen in Saxifrage
4607. Hairy undersides prevent desiccation
461Undersides of leaves have hairs on the bottom to break up the air flow and help retain water inside the leaf
4628. Hairs absorb incoming heat and trap outgoing heat
463Creates a Greenhouse Effect (incoming rays heat up and that heat is retained by the structure above it)
464Willow flowers hairs help keep them warmer
465Keep growing part of flowers warmer
466Also see a greenhouse effect in polar bears who have black skin to absorb the warming wavelengths of light and retain heat, as well as white hair to help retain heat
4679. Grow in a sheltered site
468Have plants growing behind rocks and raised beach ridges, especially the leeward side (not side with wind)
469Hide from wind and abrasive particles
470Can grow bigger in sheltered sites
471Form habitats can thickets
472Find clusters of White Spruce which are the Northern-most spruces in Ontario. Spruces can reproduce vegetatively by Layering – Lower  branch touches the ground and where it touches the ground, roots grow and an new spruce tree comes up but a clone, growing as part of the same plant
473
474Why spruce in this form (No needles on top but full on the bottom)? Bottom when covered in snow is sheltered. Top is exposed to blowing winds.
475The benefits of snow cover!
476Insect gleaning birds do not nest on the ground
477
478
479Migratory songbirds such as Warblers:
480(Nest all
481
482Yellow Warblers
483across Ontario so not an indicator species of the Tundra), Blackpoll Warbler (is a Tundra indicator species for nesting)
484Some songbirds also eat seeds
485Common Redpoll (indicator species for nesting)
486American Tree Sparrows nest on the edge of the tree-line (on the ground, not in trees)
487These sheltered plant and tree areas offer areas for songbirds to nest
488Would not find Deer mouse in the Tundra because the extremities are too long
489Are Northern Small Mammals
490Meadow voles are ubiquitous (found everywhere in Canada)
491Not indicator species but small extremities allow it to survive in the Tundra
492Ex. North Bog Lemming (small extremities such as tail, Lemmings are Northern-most mouse like animals we have)
493Adaptations:
494Plump (rotund) bodies so low surface area to volume ratio favours to retaining body heat
495Bergmann’s Rule = More rotund an animal is, the lower the surface area to volume ratio so more heat retained
496Allen’s Rule = Short tails
497Would not think Meadow Jumping Mouse would be found in the Tundra because of its VERY long tail but it is. Survives because it is one of three animals that are true hibernators (also another jumping mouse and groundhogs). Are areas that an animal can dig below the frost line such as into ridges and sand dunes
498Which is why groundhogs are in the Tundra TOO!
499Neither are indicator species because in Southern Ontario too but can survive in the Tundra
500Meadow Voles undergo the greatest population cycles of any mammal in the World
501The population cycles greatly affect the numbers of their predators
502The small mammals are food for Arctic Fox and birds of prey
503Big, predatory birds are nesting on the ground in the Tundra
504Ex. Short-eared Owls
505Can be there in large numbers if small mammals are abundant
506Snowy Owls could potentially be there but not confirmed
507Been found in Tundra of Quebec with nests full of dead lemmings
508Darker coloured ones hatched this year (darkest of all are the young females)
509Have one plant in the Tundra that is Hudson Day Endemic – Confined to the shore of Hudson Bay (Found nowhere else)
510Called Lepage Wild Flax
511
512Not endemic to Ontario though, also found on Hudson Bay shores into Manitoba
513The Tundra is the most Northern and most inhospitable ecological region in adaptations
514Any plants and animals here need to suffer through harsh conditions and need adaptations
515Our 2nd Ecological Region is the Hudson Bay Lowland
516Northern limit is the edge of the tree line before the Tundra and to the south lies the Boreal forest with continuous canopy forest
517Hudson Bay Lowland is flat
518Boundary to the south and west is the Canadian Shield Physiographic region and Boreal Forest, Forest region
519One of the world’s largest continuous wetlands
520Are scattered trees but not solid canopy across the whole region
521There are no roads (yet). Only planes, no trains or automobiles, but there is a lot of water
522The Hudson Bay Lowland is sometimes called the “Northern Boreal”
523Unlike the Tundra, the HBL Forest Region has some true forest – mostly Black Spruce and Tamarack – Like the Boreal Forest, but confined to smaller areas. The Boreal Forest has continuous forest and relief because the Boreal Forest lays on the Canadian Shield
524The Hudson Bay Lowland is underlain by Sedimentary Limestones
525Sedimentary rock makes the land very flat
526Low elevation (60 to 150m)
527More than Tundra as more isostatic rebound has happened
528Because it is so flat, winds off Hudson Bay still have an effect
529Average daily temperature = -3oC to -6oC = Short growing season
530HBL is COLD overall
531Discontinuous Permafrost – Some area lack permafrost which should allow for greater diversity of living things
532The HBL is still recovering from the effects of the glaciers so still land depression
533The bedrock is covered by thick clay and silt deposits from the Tyrell Sea that covered the entire Hudson Bay Lowland
534Means region is pretty wet, water does not readily get down
535Flat, discontinuous permafrost + impervious deposits (water cannot get through) + poor drainage = LOTS OF WATER!
536Cold + wet = ideal conditions for Sphagnum Moss (dominant in HBL)
537Colonizes wetlands, creating habitats called Peatlands
538Peatlands are the dominant habitats in the HBL
539Peat > 45 cm thick and wet = Muskeg
540Peat is a dominant, organic soil formed by Sphagnum Moss dying and new moss growing on top. As the plants slowly decompose (decomposition slow in HBL), and growth is quicker, the Sphagnum mat gets thicker through time. Dead part is called peat
541The HBL is one of the largest expanses of continuous Muskeg in the world
542Stunted (growth stunted, not big but also not dwarfed) Black Spruce and Tamarack characterize the HBL muskeg
543
544Don’t have dwarfism, growing conditions are a little better
545But trees grow taller and form continuous forest in some sites
546Commonly see round balls of growth on trees called Witch’s Broom
547Bogs and Fens are two major types of peatland
548Bogs – Receive water and nutrients only by rainfall (no stream flowing in) and are dominated by sphagnum moss
549Fens – Receive nutrients from flowing groundwater such as streams (carrying nutrients from the land they flow across) and are often sedge-dominated
550Both are peatlands that have Sphagnum Moss (bogs more dominated by sphagnum moss)
551How peatlands form: Have water left by melting glaciers, there is also clay and silt deposits. Peatlands often begin by Lake-Fill – Sphagnum moss starts grows out of the edge of the water, forming a floating mat. Through time, starts to die, falling to the bottom, and the mat continues growing out further and further. If the pond is small enough, the sphagnum moss might go completely across the pond, getting thicker until all the dead parts underneath fills it up
552Bigger bodies of water never get fully covered over
553Not always Sphagnum Moss. Sedges colonize and grow out into the water, offering a framework for the mosses to grab onto it and grow around the sedges
554Sphagnum begins spreading and dominating
555
556
557BIOL 2903 – Lecture 5
558Hudson Bay Lowland Forest Region lies on top of the Hudson Bay Lowland Physiographic Region
559Boundary to south is the Canadian Shield
560Differs from the Tundra in that it has some continuous forest but not a lot
561Flat and lots of water because the Hudson Bay Lowland is underlain by sedimentary limestone
562Environment is full of calcium (basic)
563Cold, short growing season, and discontinuous permafrost so still inhospitable to some plants and animals
564On top of the limestone lies clay that was deposited by the Tyrrell Sea (block going further south by Canadian Shield)
565Cold + wet = ideal conditions for Sphagnum Moss which creates Peatlands (habitat that dominates the region). Two kinds: Bogs and Fens
566Sedges colonize and grow out into the water, initializing the process of peatland formation and other plants can attach to them
567The HBL is one of the largest expanses of continuous Muskeg in the World
568Peat > 45 cm thick and wet = Muskeg
569Stunted Black Spruce and Tamarack characterize the Muskeg, but trees grow taller and form continuous forests in some sites
570Sphagnum moss is one of the most powerful plants that grows anywhere in the world because it can grow on top of water (even if the water has low nutrients) and can grow on top of itself, getting thicker and thicker over time
571Sphagnum modifies the environment making it: acidic, nutrient poor, and oxygen deprived
572Even though area should be high in calcium, adds acidity to the environment as it slowly decomposes
573Takes all the minerals that are in the water and locks them into itself transforming the environment that should be basic and have some nutrients to one that is acidic and lacking nutrients
574Takes up a lot of oxygen and blocks it by covering the water as a mat
575Colder temperature supresses decomposition so there is not a lot of nutrients being released and those that are from sphagnum are acidic so making it pretty inhospitable for other plants to grow
576Sphagnum provides its own water because it is built like a sponge
577Gets some from water, but can also suck up water from down below because the actual structure of sphagnum moss has living cells with chloroplasts with chlorophyll for making food from sunlight, but also has all these dead, hollow cells that act like a sponge
578Cold, wet, oxygen-poor environment = very little decomposition
579Peatland mosses have another unusual feature: they form the soil
580As sphagnum moss decomposes, it becomes soil, forming its own soil (soil produced by the plant, very different) that is acidic, nutrient poor, and oxygen depleted
581Slowly the mat grows thicker and spreads, choking the water
582
583The bottom layers that are dead, are peat
584The lower portion of the moss dies and more sphagnum grows on top of it
585Growth > Decomposition = peat
586Are plants that grow on top of these really harsh environments
587Lichens do not care about acidic and poor nutrient environment beneath them, so they dominate too especially in parts of the older mats
588Especially reindeer lichens
589Come across areas where there are lichens on top of the sphagnum moss
590Heath plants are a dominant group
591Ex. Bog Laurel, Cranberry, Bog Rosemary, Leatherleaf, Labrador Tea
592Indicate peatlands
593Heath have a special adaptation for growing in tough environments – Mycorrhizal Associations – Fungus strands of roots goes throughout the environment, pulling in nutrients for the plant. In return the fungus gets sugar (carbohydrates) from the plant that manufactures it from sunlight
594Symbiotic relationship
595Couple types: Ectomycorrhizal and Endomycorrhizal (most common)
596Like in the Tundra, have hairs under the leaf for helping prevent desiccation through the winter since these leaves are retained for the winter (plants save energy by not having to grow new leaves in the spring, since still nutrient poor)
597Ex. Leatherleaf has leathery leaves with hairy undersides
598In addition to fungi partners, there is a second way plants can get nutrients in a harsh environment, from insects. Plants that eat insects can survive better. The HBL is full of plants that eat insects
599Sundew have adhesive traps
600Pitcher-plants are carnivorous and have pitfall traps (vas with water in the bottom where insects crawl in and drown)
601Still green telling us it not only eats insects, it photosynthesizes (does not depend on insects, but a great supplementary source of nutrients)
602Bladderwart in the water have suction traps
603Plants with traps use these adaptations as a great advantage in the HBL
604All three of the above plants are common in the HBL
605As mat gets thicker (especially near former shores), shrubs grow on it
606Alders have a special adaptation for nitrogen. They have root nodules full of bacteria that transform the form of nitrogen that plants can’t use and turn it into an organic form that plants can use.
607So, Alders have a way of getting nitrogen, an essential nutrient for growth
608Black spruce grow on mounds and hummocks
609Black spruce also have Mycorrhizal associations on their roots
610
611Have Ectomycorrhizal where the fungus wraps around the rootlets, as opposed to Endomycorrhizal where the fungus penetrates the cells which heath plants have
612Hummock – Mound of vegetation growing up. Is a little higher and dryer, making it a better spot for trees to grow
613Black Spruce
614 often spread by Layering – Lower branches touch down,
615
616causing another to start growing
617Black Spruce only grow as stunted trees in the muskeg
618Come across areas where the Sphagnum Moss completely covers the water (no water left). Expect to see habitats scenes like this by the southern edge. Where the weight from the glacier was first removed, having more time for isostatic rebound, meaning the southern limits is higher up and therefore better drained
619Eventually the moss fills in to the bottom of the pond, leaving a more solid, organic soil base where larger trees can grow
620Over thousands of years
621Trees grow larger on top of the Grounded Mat
622No more floating water
623This is where you get continuous forests
624Eventually a black spruce forest forms
625As a peatland mat thickens and succession progresses, diversity drops
626o	The youngest edge of the mat (next to water), the
627Sphagnum Lawn, supports the
628greatest diversity of plants
629More biodiversity at the edge of the mat than the older part of the mat because the Sphagnum Moss has been there as long so has not transformed the environment as much (has not effected as much yet) so there is more nutrients and there is more sunlight because no trees have started growing
630In younger part see more sedges, flowering plants, and carnivorous plants
631Most carnivorous plants grow here
632In the HBL when it goes from open water through Sphagnum moss and peatland formation, eventually finally into a black spruce forest in some areas, the end condition (through succession) is called Climax
633The climax condition could be Black Spruce forest, but if the water changes, rising for some reason (Ex. heavy rain, beaver dam) flooding the area, sphagnum moss can start growing again and overtake the forest. The sphagnum moss can kill the trees by saturating the environment with water (holds it like a sponge). This can cause the area to go back to a peatland again. So could be said that the sphagnum moss peatland is the climax condition
634Paludification – Process of sphagnum moss overtaking a forest, becoming a peatland again
635Is a major way peatlands formed in the HBL
636The Hypsithermal was a great warming trend approximately 7000-5000 years ago
637
638Paludification resulted in wetlands forming where forests once stood.
639Forests we see in the HBL now have since grown back
640More of a Climax Pattern instead of a climax forest
641Other forest types such as those in southern Ontario keep going through time (more of a climax condition), but up in the HBL you have various habitat types that can be dominant based on the condition
642Have peatlands that are in parallel rows that are perpendicular to the slope of the land, called String Bogs or Ribbed Fens with water flowing between the ribs
643The “ribs” or “fins” are perpendicular to the gentle slope
644Shallow ponds are a major feature
645They are different than ones in the Tundra because they are breeding grounds for certain animals
646Ex. Another Herp (Amphibian): American Toad
647Brighter than down here
648Spring Peepers also occur in the HBL
649Toads are not freeze tolerant, burrow down to avoid freezing. This is where the lack of continuous permafrost benefits toads, have lots of spots to burrow
650Still have Wood Frogs like in the Tundra
651Freeze tolerant frogs are still the dominant group of herps
652Sandhill Cranes are common here but are associated with wetlands across Ontario
653Are some sandpipers that nest in the muskeg which is unusual
654The ponds are nesting habitat for two sandpipers:
655Greater Yellowlegs, which have bright yellow legs, nest in the peatlands all through the Boreal forest too
656Not an indicator of HBL
657Lesser Yellowlegs nest only in the HBL
658Lack of dots throughout because people are confined to rivers, canoeing, instead of walking through the Muskeg
659These sandpipers that feed on invertebrates in the mud would not be there in the winter because the mud is frozen
660The stunted spruce provide habitat for other birds
661Northern Shrikes nest in the HBL muskeg
662In summer they are found primarily in the HBL = Indicator Species
663Predatory birds, impaling caught small mammals on thorns
664See a couple of species that nest in the shrubs of the Tundra such as Common Redpoll and White-crowned Sparrow
665Palm Warblers nest in peatlands
666They also nest commonly in Boreal forest peatlands
667Not indicator species for HBL, but they are a peatland species
668Ground nesting in sphagnum moss
669Wag their tail (move up and down)
670Rivers are important habitats
671Aerial view shows that it is darker green along river banks because there are trees
672Rivers move, sort, and deposit material, creating drier substrate for plants
673
674Rivers rise in the spring, depositing materials higher up, creating raised banks along their shores. Plants are higher and dryer. Rivers deposit materials allowing forest habitats to form. As water rises, and river widens, trees are washed away.
675The shoreline habitats allow for a greater diversity of plants and animals in the HBL
676By the shoreline plants have access to calcium. Recall the Sedimentary Limestone underlying the HBL
677Alpine Distort and False (Sticky) Asphodel are northern caliciphilic plants that like calcium and cold temperatures. Growing on the river edges only (not in the muskeg), of the HBL
678Butterwort is a northern carnivorous plant (troughs with sticky liquids), that also like calcium, thus shores of HBL have habitat for it
679Many orchids are calciphiles
680“parrow’s egg Lady’s slipper is Ontario’s most northern Lady’s
681slipper
682Lip forms a pouch, resembling a sparrow’s egg
683Found throughout the HBL (and way out of range, on the banks of Lake Superior)
684
685
686BIOL 2903 – Lecture 6
687Both the Tundra and Hudson Bay Lowland Forest regions lie on top of the Hudson Bay Lowland physiographic region
688Raised edge of rivers is where we find a lot of plants that like calcium
689Raised area that is better drained, more access to nutrients and therefore have layers of trees and shrubs
690Shrubs are along the edge where high spring waters ravage the edge and trees do not have a chance to get rooted
691Ninebark
692Willows (medium sized ones, not dwarfed like in the Tundra)
693Wolf-willow (Silverberry) not an actual willow
694Homes for birds
695Orange-crowned warbler primarily nests in the HBL area
696Fox Sparrow tend to be HBL breeders, especially along rivers
697Pine Grosbeak not many known locations for it in Ontario, but is known to be in HBL
698Very pale coloured trees are Poplars which are pioneer species
699Have a mixture of trees but most of the full size ones are conifers such as Black Spruce
700Bunchberry is a coniferous forest plant that occurs in the HBL along the edge of rivers, but not exclusive to HBL (also throughout boreal forest) so not an indicator species
701Have trees so have woodpeckers which we don’t in the Tundra zone
702Most Northern Woodpecker in Ontario is the Black-backed Woodpecker
703Have a foot adaptation that perhaps has to do with living further north and/or the way they feed → only have 3 toes
704Find them throughout the Boreal Forest and in the HBL but not in the muskeg, are in the bands of coniferous trees on the edge of rivers
705Gray Jay found throughout Boreal Forest but also are in the HBL because of the river tree habitats
706Survive winter by storing food in thousands of places
707Stays as resident throughout winter
708Spruce Grouse eat the needles of spruce trees
709See a lot of birds that are in the boreal forest, up in the HBL because of the presence of tree habitats along the river edges
710Snowshoe Hares eat the needles off spruce trees and bark off shrubs
711Have a bunch of cones on the trees which animals eat the seeds
712These seeds are food for Cross-bills and Squirrels
713White-winged Crossbill is a specialist for spruce seeds
714Found throughout Ontario, including Boreal Forest and into HBL
715Found almost exclusively along river because that is where the spruce are mostly found in HCL and surveyors canoe rivers
716Red Squirrels are real specialists for the seeds of spruce cones. Store huge piles of spruce cones in middens and dig them up in the winter time to eat the seeds
717
718Find in the HBL because of the continuous stretches of spruce trees
719Are predatory animals that feed on the smaller ones and extend from the Boreal Forest into the HBL
720o	Great Gray Owl is an irruptive species
721
722Northern Hawk Owl are crepuscular (active in daytime) → daytime hunters
723Both owls can live in the same area and share resources because they hunt at different times. Both not indicator species, also found in the Boreal Forrest.
724Northern weasels such as Fishers, Martens, and Wolverines
725Throughout Boreal Forest but also in HBL because a lot of small animals to eat
726Martens can climb trees to get squirrels and birds higher up
727Wolverines very tough animals, known to fend off grizzly bears. Not exclusive to HBL, but mostly sited there
728In the HBL the continuous forest is mostly confined to river edges
729Beyond the forest fringe lies the great expanse of muskeg
730Boreal Snaketail dragonfly is found throughout the Boreal Forrest and get into the HBL. Like faster water of northern rivers as a nymph
731Attawapiskat river is a big river that flows through the HBL into James Bay
732Usually have to fly into these areas but can transport as far up as Moosonee, at the southern tip of James Bay
733Have a train from Cochrane to Moosonee called the Polar Bear Express
734Rocks at mouth of the Attawapiskat are flat, smooth, and full of scratches (glacial striations) because of glaciers. Full of calcium, effervesces
735LeConte’s Sparrow and Nelson’s Sparrow live in salt water marshes at the edge of James Bay and Hudson Bay
736See beautiful lawn of green short grass like stuff growing on the edge of James Bay up to Hudson Bay called Goose Grass
737When tide goes out, tidal mudflats have a lot of invertebrates for shorebirds. Down further south, many of these shorebirds don’t live here, it is a feeding stop while migrating
738Lesser Yellowlegs breed in the HBL so it is an indicator species
739Semipalmated Plover and Least Sandpiper and Hudsonian Godwit nest along the Hudson Bay shoreline or Tundra edge further north and migrate through
740Red Knots fly further than Arctic Terns
741Many maritime animals we find along the edge of Hudson Bay and James Bay
742Beach Pea will colonize sand along the edge of salt water oceans (maritime plant)
743Have Jellyfish
744HBL is a vast area of flat land, with lots of water, and rivers play a big role, BUT there is one major exception
745Really big cliffs called the Sutton Hills or Sutton Ridges
746Not made of sedimentary rock
747In the Northern part of the HBL
748These are intrusive rocks that came up from the bowels of the Earth and are extremely old (surrounded by the young sedimentary rock)
749
750Precambrian (mostly granitic, some diabase) very old (~2.5 billion years) surrounded by younger sedimentary limestone
751Inlier – In the middle of younger rock
752The Sutton Hills offer the only real source of major relief in the HBL
753More than dunes and raised ridges
754Diabase make strange looking sills
755Virtually all the know Golden Eagle nests in Ontario are in the Sutton Hills. They are cliff nesting birds
756Disjunct populations of plants (grow in the Sutton Hills but no where else for thousands of miles, but this is not the main population)
757Rock Polypody grows in Canadian Shield but no where else in the HBL except the Sutton Hills because the habitat
758Greenland Sandwort is a very northern plant but also grows in the Sutton Hills but no where else in Ontario
759Alpine Brook Saxifrage is northern all around the world, but also grows in this area of Ontario
760Sometimes disjunct plants are there because the reign of the plant was continuous at one time, where conditions were always cold and rocky. Over time some parts have warmed, and the plant disappeared from that part of the range, but the disjunct part is still cold. When this happens, the disjunct population is known as a glacial relict
761Possibly left over from glacial days but may be for other reasons
762Ex. A plant could happen to blow spores far enough north and landed in a suitable habitat with the right conditions
763But to the south of the HBL there is a lot of relief due to the Canadian Shield
764Boreal Forest is on the Canadian Shield
765Has lots of continuous forest
766Much more so than the HBL
767Have a lot of relief from amount of raised area
768A lot of relief partly because of all of the relief, water filling in pockets between them
76925% of Ontario
770It lies on the Canadian Shield Physiographic Region
771Very old, acidic rock
772Boreal Forest lies entirely on the Canadian Shield, but the Canadian Shield covers a wider part of Ontario than just the Boreal Forest. The Great Lakes – St. Lawrence forest region also lies partly on the Canadian Shield. Two forest regions are delimited by the types of trees that grow there
773Boreal forest is dominated by Coniferous trees and old rocks (1-3 billion years old)
774Most common minerals in these rocks are Silica and Quartz which are acidic.
775The rocks are hard and generally acidic
776Southern Boundary = Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Forest Region (characterized by a mixture of Northern and Southern trees including White Pine and Red Pine, both of which are virtually absent from the Boreal Forest)
777
778Boreal Forest is dominated by conifers
7793 Main coniferous trees of the Boreal Forest: Especially Black Spruce, and also White Spruce in dryer areas, and Balsam Fir
780Where they appear in the boreal forest and the quantity depends on a number of factors
781In some regions of the Boreal Forest Jack Pine is very common
782Also a lot of deciduous trees in certain areas
783White Birch and Trembling Aspen
784Pioneer species
785Sun lovers that cannot grow beneath conifers
786Areas with a lot of these, right habitat could have been created by fires
787More types of trees (and plants) than the HBL because:
788Warmer because it is further south
789o	+1 to – 3oC
790A longer growing season
791More Decomposition so richer soil
792Developed mineral/organic soil layer on top of the deposits
793More Precipitation
794More Relief, greater site variation
795Underlain by Canadian shield causing a great relief of the land and different site conditions
796Less muskeg and less ground water lying around, no clay so better drainage
797A diversity of glacial “gifts” from sand, to gravel, silt, and boulders
798Sometimes have spots see overblown trees with pile of large rocks or boulders underneath, meaning a fast river once flowed through there shortly after the glaciers left, taking only the small stuff
799
800
801BIOL 2903 – Lecture 7
802Ducks that live in colder regions like Tundra tend to dive for their food which means their legs are really far back on their body, so they have better propulsion while diving. However, can’t jump to take off like Mallards, they have to run across the water to take off.
803Boreal Forest Cont’d
804Find Igneous and Metamorphic rock in the Canadian Shield
805Lots of relief which provides a lot of micro-habitats
806Boreal forest has continuous forest pretty much throughout it
807Rocks are hard and generally acidic so do not wear down well
808Southern Boundary = The Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Forest Region (characterized by a mixture of canopy forming northern and southern trees including White Pine and Red Pine, that are virtually absent from the Boreal Forest)
809White Birch and Trembling Aspen often found in areas where there were great disturbances
810Warmer (+1 to -3oC) so a longer growing season
811Northern Boreal makes contact with the HBL. It looks very similar in parts (flat), but more continuous forest
812Western (“Prairie”) Boreal has a lot of Jack Pine and very little soil. A lot of young growth of poplars and birches
813Clay Belt Boreal has a lot of cat tail marshes which are rare elsewhere in the boreal forest
814Superior Boreal is where must spectacular geology in Ontario is found
815General Characteristics of the Boreal Forest
816Conifers are dominant
817Black Spruce: Spindly (tall and thin, short branches with lots of space between them) shape for shedding snow. Have little needles that are roundish
818White Spruce: More full-figured, but still not wide branches. Again, have roundish needles.
819All needles of spruce are attached individually, can pull them off one at a time
820Balsam Fir: Have a very sharp point. Have a spire (steeple shaped sharp point) growth form to shed snow. Unlike spruce, needles aren’t round, they’re flat. Bark tends to be smooth and grey, with chemicals under the bark that insects don’t like and stops them from maturing
821Tamarack or Larch: Only coniferous tree that drops its needles in the autumn and grows new needles in the spring. Needles turn gold before dropping. Very lacey, soft appearance to them. Have larger groups of needles
822Rest grow needles but is more of a gradual process so never see them without their needles
823Red Squirrel are associated with the seeds inside the cones of the coniferous trees, storing cones then digging them up in the winter, using their sharp incisors to cut off the scales of the cones to get at the seeds
824
825Deer Mice also eat the seeds inside cones. Have longer tails, finding the conditions of the Boreal Forest better than the HBL. Burrowing down in the subnivium space (under snow)
826Have a greater biodiversity in general in the Boreal Forest, including more small mammals
827Marten: Have enlarged hind feet for mobility in the snow. Fur bearing
828Called “Fur Bearing Animals” because they have/wear fur
829Predatory birds in the Boreal Forest: Great Gray Owl, Northern Hawk Owl, Boreal Owl
830All 3 owls live in the same general habitat but hunt at different times of day
831Great Grey Owls hunt during the crepuscular times of day (late afternoon, early morning when twilight)
832Boreal Owls are most nocturnal owls in the world, waiting until it is really dark to start hunting and stop hunting before it gets bright
833Northern Hawk Owl hunts during the daytime (diurnal)
834Example of Resource Partitioning or Niche Partitioning where they are able to live in the same are but not have a lot of competition between each other because they are hunting at different times of day
835White-Winged Crossbills can also benefit from the seeds of spruce cones with bills that are the right size and hooked over tips for prying open spruce cones
836Are nomadic (wandering) and irruptive meaning they can be totally absent from a big area for years and then all of a sudden there is 1000s to 100,000s of them. Indicates food supply is irregular (plants produce different quantity of cones each year so there is not a constant number of crossbills and red squirrels there each year which would eat every single cone resulting in no regeneration. Are years when white-winged crossbills and red squirrels are scarce in the Boreal Forest)
837Boreal Chickadees eat insects and seeds, and do not migrate, staying year-round
838Spruces offer more than food. Gray Jays are linked to spruce trees because of food storage. Store food through the summer and fall, depending on that stored food for winter survival, and late winter when they start nesting and need to feed their babies
839Store their food almost exclusively in spruce trees either under loose bark or lichens
840Incredible memory, remembering all these hiding places
841Gray Jays are non-migratory year-round residents
842They nest early to allow time for food storage
843Eventually the dominant young kicks out its siblings
844The dominant young remains with the parents on their territory all winter
845Gray Jays, like many residents of the Boreal Forest, share the common trait: are very
846NOT shy. Not afraid of people
847In addition to offering food from cones, needles of spruce are also a food source. Certain insects can eat the needles
848Down here caterpillars feed on leaves, turning into moths or butterflies
849In the Boreal Forest few moths and 1 butterfly feed on needles
850
851Main group of herbivores in the Boreal Forest that look like moths but aren’t,
852are Sawfly larvae
853Have more legs than caterpillars
854Adult Sawfly, the female has a little saw, cutting a slit in twigs to lay eggs
855One Boreal Forest bird eats spruce needles → Spruce Grouse
856One large animal that likes to eat the needles of balsam fir is the Moose
857Moose exemplify diet switching, eating a lot of aquatic plants in ponds during the summer for sodium, but in winter balsam fir
858Since moose are feeding more on dry things (needles and twigs) during the winter, their droppings are more fibrous and round
859Moose have incredibly long legs because they have to walk through the high snow. Also have different shoulder movement, able to pivot the shoulder in the sockets making it easier to walk through deeper snow. Also have large feet for walking around in snow
860Snowshoe Hare eat a variety of plants including Balsam Fir
861Have enlarged hind feet
862Go through remarkable population cycles in the Boreal Forest: Can be very scarce and then a number of years later they are so abundant, one jumps out of your road almost every step you take
863Can have 3 or 4 litters in one summer, with each litter having 5-16 young, and can start giving birth after 1 year. So, population can grow exponentially when food is plentiful
864They have great fluctuations in their numbers with a peak approximately every 10 years
865Causes for the crash include: Starvation (too many hares eating all the food), Disease, Predation (big reason because as the hares start having more success, those animals that hunt them also start having more success and having more litters that are larger. Some of these predators that benefit from hares include Red Fox, Marten and Fishers, Great Horned Owls, and most importantly the main predator is the Lynx)
866Lynx have the same 10 year cycle as hares, but a year after (is a lag time)
867Stress-induced Hormonal Changes are also important
868Recently found that when hares encounter a Lynx scent, the female hares would have a hormonal change causing the pregnant ones to either not give birth, or if they did the female and there young were not able to reproduce, causing the population to crash
869A lot of these fur bearing animals are trapped for their thick, luxurious pelts
870Spruce and Balsam Fir needles are food for a very famous caterpillar → Spruce Budworm
871Can be around in huge numbers (from Outbreaks) and after a couple years of eating the needles, the trees will die
872
873Spruce Budworms actually enhance the survival of Spruce
874In the understory kill off small Balsam Fir first (which outnumber spruce 7:1), leaving some young spruce to survive and eventually taking over when the forest starts regenerating, increasing the odds of spruce survival
875They also affect the survival of birds. Three species of warblers are known as “Budworm Warblers” whose numbers increase as the number of Budworms increase. They feed the caterpillars to their babies, so when more Budworms, more babies survive
876Three species are: Tennessee Warbler (active feeders, often feeding at the top of spruce and fir trees and the outside of branches), Cape May Warbler (more methodical feeders, feeding at the tops of trees but more towards the middle), and Bay-Breasted Warbler (sluggish, feed in the middle of trees, probing around clusters of needles for caterpillars)
877Three different Warblers feed in different parts of the same trees on the same resource → Resource (Niche) Partitioning
878Warblers sharing resources in different parts of the tree, whereas owls were sharing resources by hunting at different times
879During Budworm outbreaks, the warblers nest twice and more young survive
880also benefit from Budworm outbreaks
881Most common sparrow throughout the Boreal Forest
882Also can nest twice a year during outbreaks and more young survive
883Have White-striped and Tan-striped morphs based on colour of stripes on their head. Pairs are mixed (some one white and one tan stripe, some both white stripes, etc.). Pairs with the same stripe had less of a chance of producing young than the mixed pairs. Turns out the white stripes are better at defending their young, whereas tan stripes are better at providing food for their young, so perfect combination to have one of each.
884Most pairs are mixed – one of each type
885When trees start to die because they have lost their needles, other animals benefit as the defenses of trees start to weaken
886Bark Beetles eat the wood
887Female will eat through the bark, chew a groove, and lay eggs.
888When eggs hatch, the larvae chew there way out, amazingly never crossing paths (staying parallel to each other)
889Many kinds. Some only eat black spruce; Some only eat white spruce; Some only eat black spruce balsam fir; Some eat all spruces
890Can often tell the species by the pattern chewed out by the larvae
891Some make more meandering patterns
892
893Flat-headed Borer (name of larvae) have wider heads and so dig wider tunnels in the wood. Real name of the beetle is Jewel Beetle
894Longhorn Beetles (grubs) bore deeper into the wood
895Have very long antenna
896All three of these beetles are common in the Boreal Forest and when trees start losing their defences, they start doing better because the trees don’t have the chemicals to fight against them
897Indirectly Spruce Budworms are allowing more beetles to have success
898
899
900BIOL 2903 – Lecture 8
901“nowshoe hare’s fur turns white for the winter
902Boreal Forrest Cont’d
903Longhorn Beetles (grubs) bore deeper into the wood
904Larvae eat wood, adults collect pollen
905Spruce Budworms also indirectly help small mammal (Ex. shrew) populations during outbreaks
906Have 2 northern Woodpeckers that specialize in getting these insects out of the wood
907Can tell when you see a tree with the bark stripped off, revealing the wood beneath
908Called the Northern Strippers:
909Black-backed Woodpeckers are widespread through the Boreal Forest. Have longer bills, allowing them to not only get the shallow bark beetles, but also the deeper longhorn beetles
910American Three-toed Woodpecker is smaller than the black-backed. Short bill, so less likely to get bigger longhorn beetle grubs
911Only these two have 3 toes, all other woodpeckers have 4
912Is this an adaptation for cold northern environments or for the way they hit the tree?
913Do a couple hits straight on and then lean to the side to hit it sideways to chip the bark off
914Different bill lengths allow them to exploit different resources →
915Resource (Niche) Partitioning
916Trembling Aspen (Poplar) is also an important source of food
917Beaver and Porcupine benefit from the bark
918Impressive how a rodent the size of a Porcupine can climb trees
919Poplar leaves are food for small herbivores
920Leaf Miners live inside the leaves
921Serpentine Miner are often found inside Poplar leaves
922Mine the material inside the leaf, don’t eat from outside
923Luna Moth caterpillars also eat poplar leaves
924Canadian Tiger Swallowtail caterpillars also eat poplar leaves
925Butterflies find minerals in wet sand and mud puddles
926Suck them up with their tongue
927Puddling – Behaviour where are getting minerals from puddles
928Forest Tent Caterpillar do not live in the communal tests, tend to journey by themselves, but can be countless (billions) of them in an area in a good year
929Like spruce budworm, can be so abundant in the Boreal Forest
930Like pioneer species (those you often find in disturbed areas)
931In some years large tracts of forest are defoliated
932
933Caterpillars have eaten all the leaves on the poplar trees, if another generation of caterpillars are around the next year and eat those leaves again, the trees will probably die (eruption of caterpillars can collectively kill trees)
934Cause a visible impact
935Outbreaks – Huge number of caterpillars
936Lots of caterpillars means lots of predators and Parasitoids – Parasitic wasps and flies lay their eggs on caterpillars, the hatched larvae burrow inside, devouring the insides
937Unlike parasites, parasitoids kill their host
938Increase in number when there is a lot of hosts for their eggs
939Ex. Flesh Fly
940When have lots of caterpillars or spruce budworms causing “standing dead trees”, the dead trees attract Fire
941Lightning strikes often cause large fires in areas defoliated by insects where there is lots of fuel
942Fire is an integral part of the Boreal Forest ecology
943Vitally important environmental events in the Boreal Forest
944Benefits of fire:
945Dead trees are an important resource
946As they die and lose their defenses, beetle grubs benefit, are able to easily attack them
947Some species of beetles have smoke detectors near the base of their legs, allowing them to find and track down burned areas. Cannot lay eggs right away, but a couple days later when the trees cool down
948Some longhorn beetles detect the pheromones (when trying to mate) of bark beetles, so they know there are trees to lay their eggs on too
949When there are beetles in the tree, burn sites become an important sight for northern stripper woodpeckers
950Woodpeckers seldom use the same home year after year, creating a new one each year. Vacant empty holes are taken over by Tree Swallows
951Are not able to make their own holes, have small bills with wide bases for catching insects in flight
952Birds that take over vacant cavities are called Cavity Adopters
953Eastern Bluebird and Boreal Owl are also cavity adopters in the Boreal Forest
954Some birds use larger cavities in dead trees
955Most boreal forest ducks are cavity adopters
956Ex. Common Goldeneye, and Hooded Mergansers
957Mergansers have different bills than other ducks, have false teeth (little serrations) for holding and eating fish and water insects
958
959Video: Will land on top of broken off spruce tree. Harder to hang on to tops of trees because feet are adapted for swimming
960Northern Flying Squirrel, found throughout the Boreal Forest, are also cavity adapters (indirectly benefiting from fires)
961Northern Hawk Owls are found in old burns, in bigger cavities especially in ones where the top is broken off
962Very little undergrowth in these burnt areas so easier to see small mammals
963More small mammals in an older burn than a dense forest because more seeds (food), acting like a meadow
964Great Gray Owls commonly hunt in old burn areas
965Fire is an important element of change in the Boreal Forest
966Fireweed thrives in recently burned areas
967Comes in while things are still smouldering or after, and become abundant
968Seeds get dispersed to burn over area by wind. Have small seeds with little parachutes on them to travel through the air
969Fireweed is soon joined by other plants such as Elderberry and Blueberries both of whose seeds arrive inside animals (expelled droppings)
970Arrive maybe a few years later and are not carried by the wind
971Fires create excellent foraging habitats for bears
972Bears feed a lot in burnt over areas
973Bears also eat a lot of other plants such as dandelions
974Ironic because Smokey the bear advertises preventing forest fires
975Eventually shrubs like alders and small trees like poplars arrive
976Animals like deer and moose benefit down the road by having shrubs to feed on
977Within a few years a new forest begins to grow
978Poplars are also able to reproduce vegetatively by Cloning – Send off from their roots, creating a new poplar with the same genetics as the parent (like layering but break off from roots instead of branches)
979Older poplar stands in the Boreal Forest are almost always growing in what was burn
980Cannot grow in their own shade
981Poplars are shade-intolerant
982But spruces and balsam firs can grow in partial shade
983Succession – Process where the forest starts shifting from shade intolerant to shade tolerant trees
984Fires also help ducks in indirect ways
985
986Poplars that come in after the forest burns down are food for beavers, building dams which create a pond
987Ponds are habitats for ducks
988Find countless beaver ponds throughout the boreal forest
989Why do beavers want to build dams?
9901. To eat in safety
9912. Safe access to resources
992Don’t have to go far to get food. Pond increases
993size of zone of safety
9943. Easier to transport material
995Easier to pull a branch across water than land
9964. Water deep enough to not freeze to the bottom
997Water (pond) is a habitat for them, serving as protection, allowing for building a lodge for shelter and store food near the lodge since they do not hibernate in the winter. Need pond with deep enough water so that it does not freeze to the bottom.
998Have to swim from lodge to get the nearby food
999Keep path through the ice open until it is too thick to break through so they can keep dragging branches across the water
1000Break through the ice with the back of their heads
1001Beaver ponds are “nutrient sinks”
1002Rock of Canadian Shield that Boreal Forest is on top of is nutrient poor and acidic
1003Beaver ponds become nutrient rich. As pond forms, nutrients from the land are released into the water. Beavers are constantly bringing in organic material from the shores. Streams flowing in carry lots of nutrients, the dam slows the water flow causing material and minerals to drop. Beavers only defecate in the water (full of nitrogen)
1004Beavers play essential role in improving nutrient availability in the boreal forest
1005Great diversity of aquatic plants (Ex. white and yellow water lily) grow in beaver ponds
1006Ponds only have to be a couple metres thick to not freeze so they are wide and shallow, heating up a lot, so better for plant growth
1007Moose benefit from these ponds full of aquatic plants (like the sodium in them)
1008Beavers were hunted to make hats out of their fur. Easily wiped out whole colonies because can trap them in one trap line outside lodge. Other fur bearing animals like martens not as easily trapped
1009
1010Beavers have a special status in Canada → They are our national animal
1011Beavers are vegetarians eating bark of trees and a lot of aquatic plants (eat all parts of water lilies which grow in beaver ponds)
1012Beavers have an incredible nose for identifying their food
1013Can tell the different types of willows by smelling the trunk. Will smell before cutting, choosing certain trees to drag into the pond to eat the bark
1014One of only animals to have nose, eyes, and ears on the top of the head on a straight line so they can have all sensory organs active at the same time while floating at the waters surface
1015Tail of a beaver has many functions:
1016Rudder for steering in the water
1017Counterbalance when at the water’s surface to float
1018evenly
1019Base third of the tail (near the body) is all muscle and
1020covered with fur. “Tail” we see is only 2/3
1021Acts as an air conditioner in the summer, pumping in warm blood to cool down
1022In winter shut down that blood flow through the
1023“wonderful net” → rete mirabile
1024Complex net of branching arteries and veins that touch each other which when turned on and blood goes through it, heat from the arteries is lost to the veins, bringing the warm blood to the heart and blood going to the tail is cold, keeping the tail only a couple degrees above freezing so in the winter there is no heat loss through the tail
1025Large surface area to body ratio (like a beaver’s tail) not good for heat retention, which is why they have this system
1026Used as a portable stool. When on land, sitting up, forms a third leg for them
1027When cutting trees it is behind them
1028When grooming it is between their legs
1029Maybe to give back leg more mobility
1030Used for communication (loud slap) to warn others of danger and scare off/startle predator
1031Beavers can hold breath for 15 minutes
1032Teeth are orange because they have iron content for strength
1033Wear differentially, coming to a sharp point. Grow their entire life
1034Chew into wood one tooth (side) at a time
1035
1036Big part of their day is spent grooming. Two innermost claws have double hook, possibly for grooming
1037Pair start the colony, typically have 2 generation (1 that’s 1 year old or younger and 1 that’s 2 year’s old) having a total of 3 generations in the colony
1038Beside the adults typically never have beavers older than 2, around this age the adult beavers drive it away out of the colony. Possibly adaptation for making room for the new ones
1039
1040
1041BIOL 2903 – Lecture 9
1042Boreal Forest Cont’d
1043Beaver ponds support a wide array of organisms (plants and animals)
1044After awhile as the water becomes richer because of all the nutrients, they start to get a diversity of aquatic plants that like the shallow, rich, warm water of beaver ponds
1045All these plants are food for different types of animals
1046Ex. Beetles adults and larvae chew patterns in leaves
1047Besides animals that eat leaves, see these beetles in big groups that swirl around in circles called Whirligigs
1048Have eyes half above and half below the water so can see above and below at the same time
1049Are predatory
1050The warm, rich water is habitat for a lot of larvae, especially larvae of certain flies
1051Ex. Midges live in the mud, feeding on material in the mud. When they are ready to emerge as adult flies, they float to the surface in a pupil case which splits open and they can start flying
1052Beaver ponds are nurseries for dragonflies and damselflies. The larvae of both live in the water for about a year
1053Ex. Skimmers tend to lay their eggs in still bodied water like beaver ponds, such as the Four-Spot Skimmer
1054Nymphs in beaver ponds can have bigger, fatter bodies because they
1055don’t have to worry about current like those in fast-flowing rivers
1056Adult skimmers also have chunky bodies
1057Skimmers are the primary group of dragonflies in beaver ponds
1058American toads which are found in the HBL but also Boreal Forest don’t live on the water year round, they live on land and then burrow below the frostline for winter. They come to the edge of beaver ponds to mate and lay their eggs in the spring
1059Wood frog that is also found in the Tundra, is found in the Boreal Forest. Being freeze tolerant allows it to survive in a variety of conditions
1060Warmer water = more species = greater biodiversity
1061Being further south, there is a better biodiversity in all groups that can’t survive
1062further north, including frogs
1063Leopard Frog is very common in the Boreal Forest (but absent from HBL and Tundra because conditions are too harsh) and NOT freeze tolerant
1064Frogs in the Boreal Forest are more confined to the ponds
1065Mink Frogs are in the beaver ponds year-round as tadpoles and as adults. Found through much of the southern part of the boreal forest but not indicator species
1066Have animals that feed on these things like Mink and Great-blue heron
1067
1068Muskrat also benefit from beaver activities, found in beaver ponds eating aquatic plants
1069Otters live in beaver ponds. Don’t feed on plants, feed on fish and frogs
1070Beaver ponds supports a wide diversity of organisms, some that live in the water and some that reproduce there
1071Neat things about beaver ponds is, if the adult beavers get killed or run out of food, and leave and the dam is not maintained, the dams break and the pond drains. After years of existence that pond will have a lot of silt and rich organic matter on the bottom, leaving the muck that is exposed when the pond drains as very rich soil. Quickly a meadow develops where the mud and pond once was that is mostly sedges, some grasses, and wildflowers. Called Beaver Meadows
1072Are animals that benefit, feeding on the grasses and flowers
1073“upport another set of animals that wouldn’t be there in the first place if beavers had not been there
1074Wolves eat beavers, but wolves also benefit them in another way. Wolves come down to these meadow sites in the summer, acting as Rendezvous Sites. Pups stay here while the adults are off hunting and then bring the food back to the pups at these sites
1075In the fall moose mate in these meadows
1076Beavers benefit moose by 1. creating a site where they can reproduce, and 2. creating ponds with water lilies that are full of sodium
1077First thing that happens when a beaver builds a dam, the water rises and drowns the trees that were on land formerly around the stream. As the trees die, their defences weaken so they are attacked by fungi and insects
1078Ex. Beetles such as bark beetles
1079Woodpeckers then benefit, feeding on the beetles, and nest
1080Build a new nest the next year so Cavity Adopters such as Tree Swallows, Boreal Owl, and Hooded Merganser then benefit (from fire and beaver ponds)
1081Baby Hooded Mergansers don’t stay in their nest after hatching,
1082they jump out of the hole right away
1083Branches of these dead trees make good perches for hunters
1084Beaver ponds increase the biodiversity of any region especially the boreal forest
1085Beaver ponds are not only habitats, they are important for nutrients. Have all these nutrients on the bottom of the pond
1086Nitrogen and phosphorous have to be transformed by bacteria to a form that can be used. Twice a year, when there is a lot of rain or melting snow, the water swells up and mixes the water allowing the nutrients in the water to be exposed to oxygen, and are transformed by bacteria that need oxygen and flow down in the overflow
1087Beaver ponds are important sources of Nitrogen and Phosphorous, indirectly supplying the plants of the boreal forest through the water systems with a form that they can use
1088
1089Beaver ponds also maintain water table (level of water in the soil). If there is a drought for a long period of time, the water table is well maintained because of the dam and big pond of water
1090The Boreal Forest has thousands of lakes
1091So many because it is on the Canadian Shield which is very hilly, with lots of depressions to hold water
1092Lakes in the Boreal Forest are richer in nutrients than lakes in the HBL
1093Further south so warmer
1094More decomposition (because it is warmer) so more nutrients
1095More developed soil on land so nutrients are washed in
1096In these lakes there are lots of fish especially trout
1097So there are a lot of animals in the Boreal Forest that eat fish
1098Osprey (a hawk) which have a reversible toe for holding onto fish and are in the boreal forest in big numbers
1099Lots of Bald Eagle in the Boreal Forest
1100Young ones are usually very brown, taking ~5 years to develop the white head plumage
1101Made a comeback following DDT bioaccumulation
1102Common Merganser eats fish, finding it in lakes
1103Smaller hooded merganser is confined to beaver ponds
1104Males are only in the Boreal Forest lakes in May, rest of the summer they are fishing in the salt water of James Bay while the females are left to take care of the young
1105Lots of Loons such as Common Loon
1106Both parents care for young, giving them rides on their backs and feeding them fish
1107Are diving birds so their legs are really far back on their body so don’t walk well on land. Unlike ducks, loons must stay near the waters edge so nests are always on the edge of lakes
1108Loons prefer to nest out in the water on the edge of an island for which there are a lot of islands because of the hilly nature of the Canadian Shield
1109Islands are preferred because there are fewer predators so they are safer sites
1110Also see Herring Gull on islands again because of fewer predators
1111If danger on the island, young will swim
1112Another Boreal Forest bird that likes islands for safety is the Common Tern
1113Xanthoria lichen do not like Canadian Shield rocks but are growing in spots on these island rocks because calcium is present in the bird droppings
1114The number of spots tells you terns have been nesting in this area for years
1115Diet is fish
1116
1117Moose also benefit from the islands. Female moose swim in the ice cold water in May to get to the islands to give birth because of lack of predators. Moose calves are eaten by black bear but few on islands. Also like being near the water because after a few days the young can swim, to get away. Eventually start feeding on aquatic plants which if none are around the lake, they will head for beaver ponds
1118Boreal Forest also has a bunch of Streams and Rapids
1119There because of the lay of the land. Common habitat in the Boreal Forest
1120Expect to find filter feeders in this fast flowing water such as Net-Spinning Caddisflies (fly around as adults looking like a moth, but the larvae in water build these trumpet shaped nets that filter out food for them from the current. Larvae lives in the back part eating what is caught in the net) and Black Flies (have pulsing mouth part called the labral brush for filter feeding)
1121As adults, black flies have mouth parts that are like shears, cutting into skin and putting in anti-coagulants so the blood keeps flowing
1122Fast water is home for Clubtail dragonflies such as the Boreal Snaketail
1123Nymphs are streamlined and flattened for crawling on the bottom in current
1124When they first leave the nymph case they are in a “teneral” state
1125where they are very soft and take days to harden
1126Male clubtails have a big swelling at the end called the club
1127Boreal Forest is not the same all the way across
1128Western or Prairie Boreal Forest
1129Not a prairie habitat, but influences come from the prairies
1130The elevations are not very high (350m ASL)
1131Low elevation for the Boreal Forest
1132Thin soil and lots of exposed rock
1133Very old rocks that are 2.3 billion years old
1134As glaciers retreated, some lakes formed at the boundary of them
1135Lake Agassiz had a major affect on the western boreal forest. Because the land isn’t as high as other parts of the Boreal Forest, the wind and wave action took a lot of soil away
1136Western Boreal is the driest and warmest part of the Boreal
1137Most of the winds in Ontario come from the west. West of the Boreal Forest is prairie which is hot habitat with strong winds with no trees to buffer
1138Have these strong, westerly winds coming into Ontario that are warm and dry
1139Less precipitation and more warmth
1140There are many more wild flowers in the Boreal Forest than in the Hudson Bay Lowland
1141A number of prairie or western boreal species or varieties are found here
1142Green Ash is a prairie variety (more prevalent in the prairies) of Red Ash
1143**Prairie Crocus** is found in Ontario only in the Western Boreal
1144Black Spruce and Jack Pine are dominant, and Balsam Fir is also rare
1145The coniferous woods are habitat for boreal birds such as:
1146
1147Spruce Grouse which not only eat spruce needles, they also eat Jack Pine needles
1148White Winged Crossbill
1149Boreal Chickadee
1150Gray Jay
1151These coniferous trees have small herbivores grazing the needles (Ex. Sawfly)
1152Boreal Forest has greatest diversity of Warblers (often called Wood Warblers) in North America (glean insects of trees)
1153More Species of warblers nest in the Boreal Forest than anywhere else in North America
1154Have birds that capture flying insects
1155Ex. Swallow
1156Yellow-bellied Flycatcher sit on branches, fly out to catch insects, then return to the branch
1157A few prairie birds nest in the Western Boreal
1158Black-billed Magpie are a western species that we find in the western boreal because the winds provide the right habitat
1159Have mammals such as snowshoe hare and moose, both are food for Gray Wolves and Cougars (have been reported from the Western Boreal)
1160Have red squirrels and another member of the squirrel family that lives in the ground →
1161Least Chipmunk (smallest of the chipmunks)
1162Typical boreal forest animals such as Marten, Fisher, and Wolverine
1163Jack Pine are not only dominant in the western boreal, they are important ecologically
1164Pine are different from spruce: needles come in little groups (2 needles in a cluster)
1165Spruce and fir, needles are attached individually
1166Jack Pine has shorter needles for shedding snow. Down here pine needles are longer
1167Not a symmetric tree, “very twisted”
1168Habitat for Spruce Grouse which eat their needles
1169Big cones that are very hard, and the scales are cemented together with a hard cement.
1170So they stay closed for years, crossbills cannot open them. Even red squirrels have trouble
1171
1172
1173BIOL 2903 – Lecture 10
1174Western Boreal Forest Cont’d
1175Not as elevated compared to rest of Boreal Forest
1176Soil is very thin with a lot of exposed rock
1177“The Jack Pine” is a very famous painting by Tom Thomson
1178Cones of Jack Pine stay closed for years, even decades in some cases
1179Crossbills and Red Squirrels cannot open them
1180The resin holding the scales together can be burnt off
1181Fire opens up serotinous cones
1182Temperatures of 50oC are required
1183Jack Pines are serotinous which means delayed reaction which is started by the heat of fire
1184So when fire goes through a Jack Pine stand the cones slowly open up and after a while the seeds fall out
1185Because the seeds can then grow in the new open area created by the fire, the trees replace them self, and means the trees are Fire-Adapted – Have adaptations to use fire to their advantage, and that advantage is reproducing
1186Fire also changes the ground beneath the trees, on top of the ground is organic material such as old, dead needles and twigs which burns also (called the Duff Layer). Below the duff layer is mineral soil. SO when fire comes through, it burns off the duff layer, exposing the mineral soil for the Jack Pine seeds
1187So fire does two things for Jack Pine:
11881. Open the cones, allowing the seeds to be released later on
11892. Exposes a nice layer of soil below for the seeds to land on o Fire regenerates Jack Pines which creates habitat for Spruce Grouse o Sharp-tailed Grouse also benefit from fire
1190One of best parts to find them is in burns in the western boreal forest
1191Burn is short for a burnt over area
1192Kirtland’s Warbler is a Jack Pine dependent species
1193Not in Western Boreal presently but prof thinks it will be in our lifetime
1194Until a dozen years ago, were only found in one spot in the entire world, a Jack Pine population in Northern Michigan
1195Dependent on a certain height Jack Pine that reflects a certain age of tree
1196Nest only in Jack Pines 5 to 15 years old, 2 to 5m tall
1197Were having controlled burns every few years to regenerate the habitat for them
1198Endangered species
1199Sometimes down to a few hundred
1200Controlled burn efforts and killing off cow birds (lay eggs in other nest and the hatched young kill the young of the adopted parents) allowed them to have success and are nesting in Ontario now and expanding
1201Also fire dependent
1202Fire is a major ecological force in the Western Boreal
1203
1204On average fires occur every 50 to 100 years
1205Why so many fires?
12061.) Low amount of annual precipitation (It’s dry)
12072.) High number of lighting storms in western boreal
12083.) Relatively flat land and winds from the prairies
1209Helps spread fires that start
12104.) Conifers are full of resin and burn well
1211But how do Black Spruce survive fires?
1212Black spruce has two types of cones: cones out farther in the branches that open naturally and throw the seeds out, and has cones next to the top part of the trunk that don’t open readily and require the heat of fire as well
1213Black spruce have semi-serotinous cones (as a backup plan)
1214So when the fire goes through and burns off the other cones, some cones have seeds that will fall down into the mineral soil and eventually grow
1215Black Spruce tends to grow in damper areas of the western boreal, not higher ridges where the Jack Pines are
1216Still more north and colder than other areas of Ontario, so in some areas of the Western Boreal forest it is cool and nutrient poor so peatlands can form
1217But no Muskeg because it is too hot and dry
1218Peatlands are pretty well developed, do not see much early stages as you do in the HBL
1219Youngest part of the peatland (Sphagnum lawn) has the greatest diversity of plants
1220See Bog Laurel
1221Greater Yellowlegs found throughout Boreal Forest and HBL nesting in peatlands
1222Lots of small pools of water. Mosquitoes found throughout the Boreal Forest like to lay their eggs in shallow water. Only females draw blood to get protein for egg development
1223Emeralds found and dominant throughout the Boreal Forest, are a group of dragonfly that are very green and hunt in forests and peatland sites
1224In Boreal Forest start seeing more species of amphibians that are not freeze tolerant
1225and also see reptiles which aren’t in the HBL
1226Garter Snakes in western Ontario tend to look different. The western red-sided form is common
1227Spend winter below frost line in the hibernacula (not freeze tolerant)
1228Painted Turtle is also a little different, western one’s map pattern on the belly is much bigger
1229Hatchlings are freeze-tolerant (maybe adaptation for why they are so far north in the boreal forest). Only reptile and only as a hatchling
1230Near Red Lake rocks are > 3 billion years old
1231Woodland Caribou Provincial Park
1232Parked named because formed this park to protect woodland caribou that live throughout the boreal forest in the fall and winter
1233
1234Classified as a Wilderness Park – No logging, no roads, no dams on the rivers, so is untouched wilderness
1235Lot of exposed rock by shore line because of Lake Agassiz affect
1236Lots of Jack Pine and Poplars
1237Wabakimi Provincial Park
1238Another wilderness park
1239One of biggest tracts of Boreal Forest in the world
1240Many similarities with Woodland Caribou
1241Lots of exposed rock, not extremely hilly, thin soil, and lots of smoke from fires burning elsewhere in the boreal forest
1242Still affected by the winds from the west
1243Typical Boreal Forest plants such as Bunchberry (also grow along rivers of HBL where you have Boreal Forest conditions), Canada Mayflower, and Clintonia or Bluebead Lily (found throughout boreal forest because they like the acidity and coniferous cover)
1244Start seeing a greater diversity in every group of plants, especially in western boreal where it is warmer
1245See Eastern White Cedar which are more common in Eastern Boreal Forest and further south
1246Pink Lady’s-slippers are common in acidic coniferous forests (throughout the boreal forest, thriving because of the ideal habitat)
1247Further away from prairies than Woodland Caribou so affects are weaker resulting in more peatlands
12481. The prairie wind effect is weaker
12492. More precipitation: 65-70cm annually (10cm more than Woodland Caribou)
1250Wind is still a factor. Can fan fires (making them burn hotter) and can also affect the western boreal by causing Blowdowns – Roots aren’t deep in the ground because of thin soil so knock trees over and roots torn up
1251Feature of area of thin soil and strong wind
1252More towards inner part of Boreal Forest so start seeing more relief, these cliff habitats that are rare elsewhere in the western boreal (Ex. smooth rock lake)
1253Both parks have a lot of lakes, dominant feature throughout the boreal forest
1254Herring Gulls tend to lay nests on islands on the ground on top of a few twigs. One found on pictured island had an incredible nest of moss
1255Bears don’t always avoid islands, can swim very fast
1256Lakes have lots of fish with Trout dominant, one of reasons for fly-in fish camps up there
1257Easy to see where the boundaries of a wilderness parks are where there is not logging because of clear-cutting
1258Logging does not benefit like a burn does, mineral soil does not get exposed because fire burns off the duff layer, when trees burn still material left behind returning nutrients to the ecosystem, fires leave many standing dead trees
1259
1260which attract more insects, woodpeckers, and cavity adopters, and fires open the cones of Jack Pines and Black Spruce
1261Leave some standing live trees but they don’t do anything
1262Not much calcium in the Boreal Forest but what is, is locked up in the trees so taking them away make it more nutrient poor than it was to begin with
1263Wilderness parks like Wabakimi are important remnants of the Boreal Forest
1264Wabakimi has some relief, but a lot more in another part of the Boreal Forest → Superior Boreal (On Lake Superior, between Thunder Bay and Wawa)
1265Some of the highest elevations in Ontario
1266Lake Superior is huge and deep, holding more water than the other great lakes combined and the largest freshwater lake in the world
1267Area >= 82,000 km2
1268Depth up to 400m (average = 149m)
1269Volume = 12,100 km3
1270Has tremendous affect on environment of Boreal Forest by the north shore
1271Lake Superior moderates winter temperatures
1272Warms the land around it slightly in winter
1273Warmer than other parts of the boreal forest on the same latitude because of the Lake Effect – Water is slower than land to heat up in the spring and summer but also slower to cool down, giving off a little heat all winter making the land around slightly warmer
1274Lake Superior depresses summer temperatures giving coastal summers
1275The north shore of Lake Superior has some of the highest elevations in Ontario called
1276Sleeping Giant (563m above sea level)
1277
1278
1279BIOL 2903 – Lecture 11
1280Superior Boreal Forest Cont’d
1281Ottawa is only 70m ASL, Sleeping Giant on North shore of Lake Superior is 563m
1282Some other peaks are 640m ASL (very elevated land in Superior Boreal) o	Sleeping Giant has the highest vertical rise in Ontario (1247 feet = 380 m) o	In terms of habitats, height creates lots of micro-habitats
1283A lot of variation in the temperature and wind exposure
1284Altitude brings a decrease in temperature
1285Lake Superior effect + elevation = very cool summer temperatures
1286Coldest summer temperatures in the Boreal Forest
1287Typical Boreal Forest species are present
1288Ex. Balsam Fir, Black Spruce, Tamarack
1289Typical Boreal Forest habitat of mostly coniferous trees
1290Conifers have cones, and most are evergreen (retaining their leaves year round)
1291Spruce Grouse there feeding on needles
1292Boreal Owls in the cavities of trees
1293Moose
1294But biodiversity is higher here than other parts of the Boreal Forest
1295One reason is a great variety of Igneous and Metamorphic rock types
1296Igneous has two types:
12971. Things that harden beneath Earth’s surface (Ex. granite)
12982. Ones where volcanic activity brought the magma above Earth’s surface, cooling down quicker than below the surface and therefore has very different mineral characteristics
1299Formed islands of rock
1300Due to colder conditions subarctic flora grows along Superior’s north shore and
1301on islands
1302Grow on this rock (that cooled above the surface), but not the typical acidic rock of the Canadian Shield
1303See Xanthoria (lichen) that is the orange lichen that grows on caribou antlers in the Tundra. So these rocks must have calcium
1304See plants like Ninebark, Shrubby Cinquefoil, Kalm’s Lobelia growing on these islands and love calcium
1305Plants that like Basic pH grow on these islands
1306Some volcanic rocks such as Basalt are basic in pH
1307Form these islands
1308More biodiversity because these basalt islands are creating a rock type with minerals that other plants can use
1309One reason the Biodiversity is greater here than in the northern Boreal Forest
1310Some of these islands do not have a lot of soil on top, but do have lichen
1311Start seeing plants we saw in the HBL on the shores of rivers
1312
1313Disjunct Population – Widely separated from where the plant is normally found
1314As glacier moved north, the main population moved north but left behind plants in habitats where the temperature was still suitable
1315Ex. Butterwort (a northern carnivorous plant) growing on these islands (a disjunct plant that is a glacial relict)
1316Sand dunes along the Superior shoreline
1317Beach Pea
1318	which we saw along James Bay shoreline (not salt water but still thrives)
1319American Dune Grass which is food for Least Chipmunk
1320Chipmunks can climb trees but tend to be at ground level
1321Disjunct population, normally found in Tundra
1322Other unusual plants are found along the north shore of Lake Superior
1323Sand dunes, even in cold environments, can be hot
1324Pitcher’s Thistles found on only a few shores of the Great Lakes
1325One of a few plants called Greats Lakes Endemic (only found one place in the world)
1326Can have disjunct populations that are not glacial relicts, spores can be blown by wind and land in right site, or maybe carried inside animal
1327Have Sparrow’s Egg Lady Slipper = Disjunct Population & Glacial Relict
1328And have Rocky Polypody and Greenland Sandwort
1329Also have some sections of the Superior Boreal that are farther south, warmer, and have longer growing season than the northern Boreal
1330Allowing for more biodiversity
1331Thus, more soil, which allows Star-nosed Moles to live here
1332Big feet for digging
1333Even a few elements of the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Forest Region can be found here (Ex. some white and red pine)
1334Pukaskwa National Park
1335Has remarkable geology and a number of glacial relicts
1336Has the longest undeveloped, natural shoreline on the Great Lakes
1337Also has one of the highest peaks in Ontario: Tip Top Mountain = 641m ASL
1338Sleeping Giant in a Provincial Park
1339Cliffs provide great variation in relief and microclimates
1340Cold winds off the lake create subarctic conditions ideal for subarctic and alpine species such as Alpine Woodsia (also disjunct population and glacial relict)
1341Cliffs are great habitats for certain birds
1342Common Raven often nest on cliff ledges. Can tell where a raven is nesting because of the defecation marks called Whitewash – Bird droppings on a cliff face
1343Peregrine Falcon made a big comeback since DDT bioaccumulation and nest on these cliffs
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350The Clay Belt Boreal
1351o	Hacking Box was what the young were raised in as part of breeding programs that helped the population rebound
1352Can assist migrating hawks and falcons and other birds of prey by creating thermals
1353When big body of water next to cliffs, the water and rock heat differentially causing rising thermals
1354
1355Glaciolacustrine means water left behind by the glaciers. Glacialacustrine deposits were left behind by a big fresh water lake
1356Glaciomarine deposits were left behind by saltwater (Ex. Tyrell Sea)
1357Gentle rolling hills and relatively flat plains
1358Balsam Fir is much more common here than in the western parts of the boreal forest
1359There is more moisture because:
13601. More precipitation
13612. Glacial deposits that hold water
1362Especially from glacial lakes
1363Lake Barlow Ojibway left behind a lot of clay
1364Not as windy and water was deeper so left behind a lot of glacial deposits, especially silt and clay, settling from the still body of water
1365Clay is so prevalent the area is called the Clay Belt
1366Clay is made of crushed and dissolved limestone
1367Basic pH
1368Limestone got there from glaciers going through the HBL and then later melting
1369Lots of clay = lots of wetlands
1370The Clay Belt has several types of wetlands
1371Some of these peatlands are called Fens – Peatlands with more nutrients than bogs (moving water going through them bringing nutrition) and lots of sedges
1372Sphagnum moss present but not as dominant
1373Bog Bean is a plant that commonly grows in fens in the clay-belt area. The leaves look like bean leaves. Fen plant because likes nutrients.
1374Fens often have Cottongrass (not a grass, is a sedge) growing on them
1375Some sedges form their own habitat in shallow rich waters called Sedge Meadows
1376Sedge Tussocks or Hummocks look like lumps, but are bunches of sedges growing together, forming mounds eventually
1377Birds often nest in these because they are higher
1378In many Clay Belt wetlands Cattails are dominant
1379Cattail Marsh is a habitat that we don’t see much of in the Boreal Forest
1380A lot of Puddle Ducks (Dabblers) that filter feed using lamellae on side of bill, benefit from cattail marshes
1381Ex. Wood Ducks, Ring-necked ducks, Hooded Mergansers
1382American Bittern are very common
1383
1384Rails are not typical boreal forest birds. Usually are further south but right habitat is there
1385Virginia Rail are specialized for walking through cattail marshes
1386Cattails have vertical stems that are pretty stiff, with small spaces between
1387These birds are skinny (have thin bodies) for walking between cattails
1388They have long toes for walking on the floating mat that the cattails form
1389American Coots (also a Rail) live in a world that is half cattail and half water and so they dive (instead of walking on cattails)
1390Have huge feet with lobes of tissue on the toes. When the foot goes forward the lobes close up so there is less drag in the water and when the foot goes back the lobes open up so there is more surface area for more propulsion
1391Open providing more support while walking on the ground, but closed when walking through cattails so they don’t get tangled
1392Pied-billed Grebe also have lobed toes
1393Skimmers dragonflies are common in the Claybelt
1394So many toads and frogs such as the Mink Frog
1395Claybelt is especially good for amphibians and birds that like marshes
1396Warmer water than HBL results in better biodiversity
1397Lots of aquatic snails in these wetlands. Snails use calcium to build their shells
1398Moose also can benefit from these rich wetlands because of aquatic plants and beavers can benefit as well, liking to eat cattails. Beavers possibly more common in this area of the boreal forest because the habitat is richer for them
1399
1400
1401BIOL 2903 – Lecture 12
1402Clay Belt Boreal Cont’d
1403The Clay Belt supports many plants that like basic pH soils (such as those atop limestone)
1404Some, like Bird’s-eye Primrose are northern in distribution
1405Others, like Wood Lily, are more southern in distribution
1406Eastern White Cedar are common in the Eastern Boreal Forest, and in the Clay Belt area, forming a special habitat that grows on wet ground called a Cedar Swamp
1407Swamp is a bit different from a bog or fen because there is more decomposition so does not form a floating mat of peat and a swamp is a wetland with growing trees in it
1408Cedar Swamps generally have basic pH conditions
1409Many orchids like calcium (basic pH)
1410Showy Lady’s-slipper grow in calcareous wetlands including cedar swamps
1411Almost completely absent from Boreal Forest, but found in Clay Belt, reflecting the importance of the soil and moisture conditions
1412Northern Limits of range is the Clay Belt Boreal (don’t
1413grow further north)
1414Are there because of the clay
1415Rivers on North Side of the Height of Land flow into Hudson Bay (the Arctic Watershed)
1416Rivers on South Side of the Height of Land flow into the Great Lakes, ending up in the Atlantic Ocean (the Atlantic Watershed)
1417There are a number of river flowing through the Clay Belt. They flow into the Arctic Watershed because the Clay Belt lies north of the height of land
1418Are a number of dams on these northern rivers for generating power
1419Famous is the Abitibi River that has a massive dam on it
1420Dam itself can be a habitat
1421Cliff Swallow is a bird that likes nesting on dams
1422Allow them to nest further north than they normally would
1423Make nest from mixing mud with saliva, building a cavity to nest in
1424Further north closer to HBL the land all of the sudden gets really flat. No continuous muskeg and still continuous forest telling us that it is still the Boreal Forest
1425Huge white sand dunes that came from the southern most extent of the Tyrell Sea. They formed at the edge of the Tyrell Sea
1426Glacial Marine Sand, left behind by sea that was related to glaciers
1427In these raised areas of sand that are dry, find Jack Pines growing on top of the sand dunes
1428
1429Shows how important site conditions are, would not find anywhere else along the HBL contact zone because it is too flat, low, and wet
1430Far too dry for spruce and balsam fir
1431Back further south, all the clay makes it really flat (levelled off by Lake Barlow Ojibway) and a little richer from the calcium from the clay, it means people can grow things on top resulting in a lot of the Clay Belt being developed for agriculture
1432Fields = habitat for grassland birds
1433Savannah Sparrow likes open areas (also found in Tundra) to nest
1434Are areas with dryer clay and sand, and pits where people are exploiting this for roads
1435Fairly evident human disturbance in the Clay Belt area in terms of agriculture, digging up glacial deposits, and logging
1436Heavy influence of human activity partly because the area is richer and flatter than other parts of the Boreal Forest
1437Clay is responsible for a lot of things indirectly and directly
1438Directly causing wetlands with rich water that are not found further north in Ontario
1439Indirectly causing more human effect which may have brought in more species to the area
1440Clay Belt adds a lot of biodiversity to the Boreal Forest
1441Boreal Forest varies North, South, East, and West, and has a great variety of habitats. Much richer than the HBL with more decomposition. Varies so much it is impossible to label with one description
1442Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Forest Region
1443Divided by Lake Superior so cannot drive straight through it
1444Real good mixture of northern and southern flora and fauna
1445Have Northern trees that are common in the boreal forest: tamarack, balsam fir, black spruce, white spruce, poplar, etc.
1446And also see trees that are not in the boreal forest
1447Characteristics:
14481.) Mean annual temp = +1 - +6oC
1449Much warmer
14502.) Mixture of Boreal Forest and Carolinian Forest flora and fauna
1451With this habitat bring northern animals such as Gray Jays, Moose,
1452And many southern species such as Sugar Maple
1453On campus will see Gray Squirrel from the Carolinian Forest and Red Squirrel from the Boreal Forest
1454Animals are here because of mixture of southern deciduous (leaves fall off every fall) forest and northern coniferous tree and peatland habitats
1455Two coniferous trees stand out that you won’t find in the Boreal Forest:
1456White Pines and Red Pines are common
1457Very few indicator species for Great Lakes – St. Lawrence region because of the mixture
1458
1459On an exam, if there is “mixture of black spruce and maple”, then this would mean you are in Great Lakes – St. Lawrence region
1460Pine Trees 101:
1461Jack Pines have serotinous cones, 2 needles per group
1462Red Pines have 2 needles per group but are very long compared to Jack Pine. Has clumpy looking groups of needles giving very clumpy appearance. Real pinkish looking bark. Evergreen, needles staying green in the fall
1463White Pines look elegant with long sweeping branches with needles evenly arranged (not clumpy looking). Needles are in groups of 5. One of the dominant coniferous trees in this forest region. Tolerant of a variety of conditions, found near the water’s edge and on hill tops, very hardy tree.
1464The blend of northern and southern flora and fauna is a key characteristic
14653.) Many species reach their range limits in the GL-SL FR
1466The blended animals are interesting. Below the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence forest region is the Carolinian and above is the Boreal Forest
1467Species from Boreal forest are not found further south and animals from Carolinian are not found further north
1468Spruce Grouse found throughout Boreal forest and into GL-SL FR but no further south
1469Snapping Turtle are found down through the Carolinian region, but north range ends pretty well at the limits of the GL-SL FR
1470Southern Range Limits – Go no further south
1471Northern Range Limits – Go no further north
1472Five-lined Skinks range no farther north (reach their northern limit here)
1473Moose range no farther south (reach their southern limit here)
14744.) Only Forest Region in Ontario that on top of 2 different Physiographic regions
1475Lies partially on the Canadian Shield and the Great Lake – St. Lawrence Lowlands
1476Does a lot for biodiversity, have two large sections that lie on different bedrock types
1477This affects the GL-SL FR by providing calcium (allows for plants
1478that wouldn’t be on other parts of the Canadian “hield)
1479Varying elevation between the 2 portions causing varying site conditions
1480Parts that lie on the Canadian Shield look rugged and hilly from the Precambrian rocks that are exposed
1481rock
1482Parts that lie on the GL-SL Lowlands are flat from layers of sedimentary
1483o	Much of the Lowland has been cleared for agriculture and
1484
1485development
1486
1487More clearing in this area because it is easier to clear the flatter land, and the first explorers/settlers came in on boats down the St. Lawrence River so first area that were colonized were by the Great Lakes and are lowland regions. As they pushed inland, more lowland got desecrated
1488Canadian Shield has prevented a lot of the activities that have transformed the lowland regions because of the nature of the land
14895.) Many non-native (to North America) species are found here
1490Mostly associated with lowland portion, not Canadian Shield portion
1491Further illustrates how important biotic and abiotic factors such as rock type, elevation, latitude and longitude, temperature, precipitation, and humans really influence what is found in a region and what happens in it
1492Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Forest sub-regions
1493Regions on Lowlands. Collectively called Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Lowlands but can be broke into:
1494Ottawa – St. Lawrence Lowland
1495To the east
1496Bounded like a triangle: Canadian shield to the west, Ottawa river to the north, and St. Lawrence river to the south
1497Great Lakes Lowland
1498Also have Carolinian lying on this
1499Named because bound by the Great Lakes, Huron on one side,
1500Erie to the other, north boundary is the Canadian Shield
1501Have rich habitats such as Alvars
1502Have special places such as the Bruce Peninsula
1503With endangered Massasauga Rattlesnake
1504Regions on the Canadian Shield
1505Frontenac Axis
1506With Five-lined Skinks and Gray Rat Snakes
1507The Superior GL-SL
1508On Lake Superior
1509Looks like Boreal Forest but have clues such as the presence of white pine
1510Have subarctic species such as Sticky Asphodel or Butterwort
1511The Western or Prairies GL-SL
1512Have prairie habitats
1513Have American White Pelicans
1514Have Franklin’s Ground “quirrels (“prairie dogs”)
1515The Algonquin Highlands
1516With Spruce Grouse and other boreal species
1517The Algonquin Highlands (a.k.a. Algonquin Dome)
1518Algonquin Provincial Park
1519
1520Established in 1893, is the oldest provincial park in Ontario
1521Huge, 3000 square miles (3rd largest Ontario Provincial Park)
1522Typical mixture of northern and southern habitats
1523Typical exposure of Canadian Shield rock
1524Was 20 - 30km higher than today’s elevations!
1525Used to be a huge mountain range, that were higher than today’s
1526Himalayas
1527The Algonquins Highlands lie atop a Batholith – Body of igneous rock that formed underground and is ≥ 100 km2 (has to be this size to be a Batholith)
1528Mountains were pushed up then gradually worn down through time
1529
1530
1531BIOL 2903 – Lecture 13
1532Algonquin Provincial Park cont’d
1533Was 20-30km higher than today’s elevation, but since has been worn down by erosion
1534Rock is very hard so would take a long time to wear down this much
1535Lying on the Canadian Shield so the rocks are mostly granitic and gneissic
1536Elevations on the West Side of Algonquin reach 600m above sea level
1537The east side has lower elevations, ~200m ASL
1538Have lots of different rivers, flowing different directions
1539Lots of ponds and mixture of north and south
1540Very rich biodiversity
1541Some northern like Gray Jays and some southern like Scarlet Tanager
1542Lots of mammals like beavers, martens, and Eastern Wolf
1543Lots of herps such as Bullfrog, Spotted Salamander, Snapping Turtle
1544Much more than the Boreal Forest
1545Algonquin Park itself has a richer biodiversity than other parts of the GL-SL forest region that are close to it
1546Pink Lady’s-slipper that likes the acidity of the Boreal Forest, also found in Algonquin park because of a similar habitat
1547Lots of different habitats, each supporting its own set of organisms
1548Average temperatures of Algonquin Park are close to those of the Boreal Forest, so cooler than those in more northern areas of the GL-SL Forest Region
1549Dome has a huge affect on temperature which then affects the plants and animals
1550Because of a combination of winds from the Great Lakes and the higher elevation, much more rain on the West Side of the park
1551The West Side is covered mostly by hardwood forest that blazes incredible colour in the fall (red, orange leaves, etc.)
1552The East Side is covered mostly by pine forest that blazes green all year too
1553Why the difference from east to west?
1554In part, the Park’s glacial history
1555Glacial till (which is a mixture of all the particle sizes) comes from the glaciers themselves. As the glaciers move across Ontario they pick up and grind up debris as they slowly move. As they melt, they drop what they were carrying
1556The western hills received glacial till deposits
1557Till retains moisture that maples and other hardwoods need
1558Retains some moisture but not completely trap it like clay
1559Sugar Maples and Yellow Birch like till-covered slopes
1560The East side received great beds of sand
1561Had a huge glacial river flowing through the Eastern part of Algonquin, depositing material sorted by size and weight. In
1562
1563areas where it slowed down around a bend, it left behind huge beds of sand
1564Sand drains very well. Unlike till, it does not retain moisture at all so it is a very dry substrate
1565Pines grow well in dry, sandy sites. So have heavy cover of pines in the East
1566A glacial river draining Lake Algonquin flowed through eastern Algonquin (that was lower in elevation)
1567Called the Fossmill Outlet
1568Huge volume of water flowed through there
1569The Petawawa River system including Lake Travers has extensive sand beaches
1570Noteworthy because it is the remnant of where the glacial river flowed
1571Why did the Glacial Spillway pass through and leave Outwash Plains only on the east side of Algonquin Park? The higher elevation of the west side
1572Elevation also brings a change in temperature and precipitation
1573As the moist air going from west to east hits the higher elevation, the air cools down and starts dropping its moisture. Creates a “Rain Shadow” where there is less rain on the east side of Algonquin
1574“o Birches and Maples don’t do well but pines do
1575In the East Side it is warmer and less precipitation than the West Side
1576The West Side
1577Hardwood forests are present
1578Sugar Maples are dominant (the most common tree)
1579There are 3 layers of life in the maple-dominated hardwood forest
15801. Canopy
1581Maple leaves are a major food source for Maple Spindle Gall Mites (live in raised leaf tissue), Maple Leaf Blotch Miners (live in leaf tissue), and a number of caterpillar grazers including Forest Tent Caterpillars and Maple Spanworms
1582Scarlet Tanagers glean insects in the canopy
1583Hard to see because their colour blends into the light when looking up
1584Red-eyed Vireo is also found in the canopy gleaning
1585Broad-winged Hawk is typically found hardwood forests of Algonquin park and other parts of the GL-SL forest region
1586Feed on frogs such as the Gray Tree Frog which you find in hardwood forests. These frogs climb trees, are able to change colour to match the lichen on the bark, and are freeze tolerant so they do not have to go to ponds in the winter
1587Maple keys are an important food
1588
1589Eastern Chipmunk follow the cycles of maple keys to a large extent
1590Deer Mouse benefit from maple keys and don’t hibernate (active all year)
1591Woodland Jumping Mouse really follow the cycles of maple keys
1592Only common owl living in the hardwood forests of Western Algonquin park is the Barred Owl, feeding on the small animals
1593Martens are tree climbing weasels that will feed on mice in trees (also hunt on ground)
1594American Beeches grow on south-facing slopes
1595The young Beeches retain their leaves year-round (no one knows why)
1596Produce seeds that are in these nutrient rich structures
1597called “nuts”
1598Beech Nuts are popular food for black bears
1599See claw marks on trees from bears climbing high up into these trees. Will break off higher up branches to get at the Beech Nuts
1600tangles of branches that look like a
1601When leaves disappear you see big
1602birds nest but are created by bears
1603
1604
1605
16062. Shrub Layer
1607climbing up trees
1608Called Bear Nests
1609
1610Middle layer of the forest; plants that grow to a certain size but never become trees
1611** Largely absent from the Boreal Forest **
1612Striped Maple grow in the shrub layer and have large leaves since they grow in the shade of the larger maples
1613Also called Moose Maple because moose like eating them
1614Beaked Hazel is the most common shrub
1615Hobblebush also have large leaves for surviving in the shade
1616Change the colours of their leaves in the all in blotches
1617Nicknamed “Nature’s Toilet Paper” because of huge leaves
1618Black-throated Blue Warbler are a shrub layer bird of big forests (require more mature forests)
1619Wood Thrush also likes and nests in the shrub layer
1620Decorate their nests with leaves, serving as good camoflauge
16213. The Forest Floor
1622Two major problems exist for all plants living on the floor
1623
1624Control exerted by the maples
16251.) Shade
1626Causing some plants and shrubs to have large leaves
1627Many wildflowers solve the shade problem by Spring Ephemeralism (bloom early before leaves on the trees open up so they can grab the sunshine)
1628Ephemerals include Hepatica, Spring Beauty, Painted Trillium,
1629(most common Trillium)
1630Don’t find White Trilliums
1631because it is too acidic and cold
1632Red Trillium are common in the park because the acidic environment
1633Downside for early bloomers is frost and snow conditions which are present in the highlands of Algonquin
1634The seeds of ephemerals mature in summer so are dispersed by ants. Ants are drawn to these plants because of Elaiosomes package on the side of seeds that is food for ants. Winds is not an option for seed dispersal in hardwood forests
1635Other plants lose the need for sunlight (don’t manufacture any of their own food), getting food through mycorrhizal associations on the roots
1636Ex. Indian Pipe sort of parasitic where the mycorrhizal associations steal food from roots of trees
16372.) The leaves create a second problem → a thick layer of compressed dead leaves
1638Flattened by winter snow
1639Decomposition is not fast enough so gets thicker as more leaves fall
1640Barrier blocks the seeds from accessing the soil
1641Dead leaf layer is called leaf litter
1642To overcome this, the seeds are largely distributed by animals
1643Spring ephemerals use ants to carry their seeds down
1644
1645Other plants employ the services of larger animals
1646Ex. Chipmunk burying them underground and dying or forgetting where they buried them, so they germinate
1647There is another way trees reach the soil. Seeds that land on old, dead logs can germinate, becoming sites where plants grow. Called Nurse Logs
1648Ex. Yellow Birch. When the log rots away, showing the elevated exposed roots, it is called “Perched Birch”
1649
1650
1651BIOL 2903 – Lecture 14
1652West side of Algonquin Cont’d
1653There are 3 layers of life in the maple-dominated hardwood forest
16543. The Forest Floor
1655Dead leaves = barrier to the soil
1656Large seeds have lots of stored food for germination
1657Animals bury the seeds
1658The wing (Ex. of a maple key) might help the seed get under the leaves
1659Number of trees, especially yellow birch, start by germinating on a dead log lying on the ground
1660Are two types of fires: major ones that burn down the whole forest and ground fires that burn off the leafy layer
1661Ground fires can burn off leaf layer, exposing soil and are not that rare in nature, exposing the soil for the seeds to germinate
1662Ovenbird (a warbler) that nests on the ground. The nest has a roof on the top and hole in the side like an old Dutch oven
1663Ruffed Grouse also found on forest floor nesting
1664Dead leaves are a problem for plants but not small animals as many eat these leaves. Benefit decomposers such as bacteria, little insects, mites, and grub. Including Springtails whole help decomposition by eating the leaves
1665Spotted Salamander is one of largest (in terms of volume not size, so total biomass) vertebrates in the hardwood forest. They dig into the soil
1666Sugar Maples are shade-tolerant (but only to a certain degree). Young maples are able to grow in the shade of the big trees. Maples can replace maples, but don’t see the maples growing much higher than your knee because the little seedlings only grow for a few years and die because they’re not getting enough sunlight (army waiting below for more sunlight). Large leaves are parallel to the ground so that more surface area to capture the dim light
1667Do replace themselves through time but only one out of so many will make it (racing for the sky). Takes a long time for one to die so another can take its place
1668Sugar Maples self-replace = Climax Forest
1669Until something major happens like outbreak of insects that kill all the trees or logging
1670Have other kinds of maples in these forests such as Red Maple whose leaves are a little more jagged cut. Unusual in that most maples have flowers that contain both sexual parts (male and female parts), but the flowers of Red Maple are only male or only female. Male red maple trees become very red in the fall, female red maple trees become very yellow in the fall
1671Another way to tell apart Red maples from Sugar maples, because Moose seek out Red Maple trees marking them using their lower incisors to rip up bits of bark off. Must be something nutritional in the bark that other trees don’t have
1672
1673Deer stand on their hindlegs to browse higher up in the hardwood forest for branches and buds
1674Eventually trees in these hardwood forest die. When they die they become important resources, full of nutrients.
1675One of the first things that starts appearing is fungi. Many different types but most are decomposers that digest the components of the tree which it cannot fend off. See the mushroom but part of the fungi goes into the tree
1676Bracket Fungus help decompose wood
1677Fungus Gnat larvae eat the fungi. Kind of fly that lay their eggs on the fungus
1678Find Bark Beetles under the bark
1679One called the Sugar Maple Borer that lays its eggs in maple trees and the larvae eat the wood
1680Insects in the wood is food for birds.
1681Woodpeckers are specialized for extracting these insects
1682Have a larger one called the Hairy Woodpecker and a smaller one called the Downy Woodpecker. Hairy has a longer bill so can get deeper ones, Downy has a smaller bill so gets more shallow ones
1683Pileated Woodpecker target carpenter ants; like the old wood in hardwood forests because more ants inside of them.
1684Brown Creeper creep up the tree trunk.
1685White-breasted Nuthatch works downwards, from above. Sits on a tree and looks down
1686So well camouflaged that unless you see them fly to another tree, you do not see them. Go from the bottom to top in a spiral, working around the tree, looking in crevices almost sideways
1687All these birds with different bills and strategies to find different foods =
1688Resource (Nice) Partitioning
1689Woodpeckers nest by creating cavities in the trees but only use them for a year, leaving them vacant
1690Cavity adopters often take over woodpeckers cavities but not always, sometimes cavities naturally form from rotting
1691Great Crested Flycatcher is a cavity adopter. Find a shed snakeskin and put it at the opening of the hole maybe to deter things such as squirrels from going into the hole and eating the babies
1692Flying Squirrels especially found in the hardwood forest, soring around the canopy. Has mostly Northern Flying Squirrels but also some Southern Flying Squirrels
1693Sometimes find Grey Tree Frogs hiding in these cavities
1694Barred Owls are the most common owl in the hardwood forest. Need larger cavities, possibly ones formed from rotting
1695Wood Ducks and Hooded Mergansers will nest in the cavities in these hardwood forests. Baby ducks jump out of the tree, walk through the forest, following their mother to the water
1696Bigger cavities have racoons in them
1697
1698Even once dead, won’t stand up forever. Eventually fall down becoming part of the ecosystem again because they are still full of nutrients. Fungi and moss really go to work, growing on them and helping decompose the wood down
1699 Sometimes see weird fungi growth where the fungi that was flat becomes thin, pointing up vertically when the tree falls over and then the fungi continues growing horizontally out of the original fungi growth
1700Slime molds slowly move across the forest floor until they find something to climb up on, changing to a different (furry looking) form for spore dispersal
1701Ruffed Grouse commonly found on old logs in the forest because males climb on them to broadcast their drumming (flapping wings to mark territory and attract a mate) sound through the forest
1702Red-backed Salamander lay their eggs in a basket in rotting logs
1703Blue-spotted salamanders are also found in the forest but have to lay their eggs by water
1704In the spring when the snow melts and rains come, pools of water form in the forest. Are temporary ponds that dry up by the summer. These are called Ephemeral Ponds
1705Great spots for egg laying for salamanders and some frogs because there are no fish (predators)
1706Southern facing slopes of western side have more American Beech because it is warmer there
1707Northern facing slopes where it is cooler because of less sun, the conditions are right for us to be able to find Eastern Hemlock (a coniferous tree). Don’t find them further north than GL-SL forest region, they require cool soil but not cold soil, that is moist but not soaking wet. They have little tiny seeds in little tiny cones, and those seeds cannot get through the dead leaf layer on the forest floor
1708Nurse logs and ground fires are especially important for Eastern Hemlock (and
1709Yellow Birch)
1710Are very shade tolerant but need to get their seeds down to the soil
1711Because they retain their needles year round, under these trees is more of a sheltered sight (whereas maples are naked) so animals like moose sleep under them
1712Needles are food for insects such as caterpillars who are gleaned by birds. Some birds who are especially associated with Hemlocks:
1713Black-Throated Green Warbler and Blackburnian Warbler feed and nest in Hemlocks
1714Golden-crowned Kinglet also associated with Hemlocks
1715Yellow-bellied Sapsucker woodpecker drills holes in Hemlocks in neat rows because it feeds on the sap in Hemlocks. Create these “wells” that sap comes out of and other animals come to feed on the sap too
1716Hummingbirds steal this sap before flowers bloom in the spring
1717Squirrel will lick up the sap
1718
1719Hornets, Wasps, and Moths come
1720The woodpeckers keep the wells open throughout the summer and eventually the babies feed on the sap
1721Pine Siskin has a bill tiny enough to pluck out and eat the tiny seeds of the tiny cones of Hemlocks
1722Change of colours of leaves of trees in the fall is called the Fall Colours
1723When all the leaves are gone so no food for insects, and cones are on the ground covered by snow, the forests are very quiet
1724Used to have White Pine scattered throughout Algonquin Park (but not dense forests of them)
1725Giant trees with tall and wide trunks, towering above the maple trees
1726These were the first ones cut down because they were needed by England as the masts of ships
1727> 35m tall and almost 2m in diameter
1728White Pine are not fully shade tolerant. After a fire burns over an area, White Birch and Poplars start growing but only creating partial shade at this point so the White Pine grow among them, outliving the pioneer species by 100s of years. So they are already established by the time maples come in
1729Part of the west side of Algonquin Park ecology but much less than sugar maples
1730East side of Algonquin Park has many more pine trees
1731White Pine, Red Pine and Jack Pine
1732On the east side, hardwood forests do not dominate the hillsides. There is more elevation, it is dryer because of the rain shadow affect, and sand deposits, causing Pines to rule
1733Pine needles fall down making the soil more acidic
1734What grows on dry acidic soil? Lichen. Also hardy plants that are fern relatives called Clubmoss.
1735Very different understory than in Hardwood forests because of the pine needles
1736Here canopy provides shade year-round (was break in spring for the spring ephemerals in the Hardwood Forest). What wild flower might grow in pine forests?
1737Pink Lady’s-slipper are abundant on the east side of Algonquin (also growing in acidity of the Boreal Forest)
1738Other Boreal Forest wildflowers as well such as Clintonia, Canada Mayflower, and Bunchberry
1739What eats the needles of pine trees?
1740Sawfly Larvae, which are also abundant in the Boreal Forest, such as the Red- headed Pine Sawfly
1741Pine Warbler are the dominant warbler on the east side of Algonquin, eating insects that feed on the pine needles
1742Pines also produce cones (after pollen fertilizes the pine), some years in large numbers
1743What would eat pine seeds? Two main predators are Red Squirrel and Red (small beaks of White-Winged Crossbills just for fir and spruce cones)
1744Red Crossbills need “grit” in their diet to grind up seeds in their gizzards. Turn their heads sideways and use their tongue to pick up the grit
1745
1746Like already seen, when trees age their defences weaken allowing insects to attack. Have one type of beetle that is rather large and has extremely long antennae and love older pines. Called the Pine Sawyer
1747In some parts of the east side, still see lots of Poplar and White Birch because of fire, providing these Pioneer Species. Pines burn well here because of the resin in them, the dry soil, and less rain. So if lightning strikes, fires are more prevalent
1748Means Trembling Aspen is very common, feeding things like Canadian Tiger Swallowtail, the buds feed Ruffed Grouse, bark is food for Beavers, and Porcupine climbs the trees to eat the buds
1749The poplars can Clone themselves
1750Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers often nest in these Poplar trees
1751Have one main predator that might come in and eat their babies is Black Bears
1752One major river flowing through it is the Petawawa River
1753Near Lake Travers Jack Pines are dominant (which is a Boreal Forest tree)
1754Benefits Spruce Grouse, providing food
1755Kirtland’s Warbler have been found nesting outside the park by less than a kilometre, but not inside yet
1756
1757
1758BIOL 2903 – Lecture 15
1759East Side of Algonquin Park Cont’d
1760Eastern Side has a lot of sand left by the glaciers when glacial river flowed through there
1761Lake Travers and Radiant Lake have lots of sand on shores, leftover from the spillway
1762Part of the Petawawa System (of lakes and rivers). Petawawa River flows into these two lakes
1763Can visually appeal to migrating shorebirds like Least Sandpipers. Of course mostly in James Bay but when migrating to South America see it and land to feed, but not all the time or very often
1764If cold from meets a warm front, causing a storm, and they have to land. Once storm clears, they fly off
1765Big difference between the sandflats of James Bay and Algonquin Park is, in James Bay with the tides have rich organic material being washed in, mixed with silt, creating a richer environment full of invertebrates. So when the birds see the Algonquin Park sandflats, they look like a good spot to stop and weather out the storm
1766Don’t put down here in the spring because the water is too high (so only when migrating in late summer and fall)
1767Very rich lakes with a lot of fish not found elsewhere in Algonquin Park such as Walleye
1768Means Otters and Mink do well in these waters
1769Other, non-fish related animals, that are only found in this area of Algonquin Park, called East “ide ““pecialties” (because have to go here in the park to see)
1770Include Pickerel Frogs (spots more squared than leopard frogs), Northern-Water Snake (common in Petawawa System), Wood Turtle (unusual turtles that spend a lot of time on land eating things like berries and worms. Will stomp their feet on the ground to bring earthworms up)
1771All 3 of these species are found outside Algonquin in the Ottawa River
1772Have these in the Eastern part of Algonquin, but not the West (which has rivers and lakes too), because of Connectivity from Petawawa River flowing into (connected to) the Ottawa River
1773Are plants here that are not found in Western Algonquin
1774Such as Cardinal Flower. Key pollinator is Hummingbirds who get nectar in return for pollinating
1775Purple-fringed Orchid and Cardinal-flowers are calciphiles. In general Algonquin Park has rocks such as Granite and Gneiss that are acidic (not full of calcium) so why is there plants that like calcium? The Petawawa River flows through a geological Fault Line (where the Earth’s crust is cracked and shifted). The pressure causes the mineral to re-align, which can cause the limited calcium to amalgamate and ooze from the rock as limestone for these plants. Another reason is because of Cedar Lake
1776
1777upstream, which is an unusual lake in Algonquin Park. On the north shore of Cedar Lake there is sedimentary limestone, so the Petawawa River flows by limestone. So water flowing through the Petawawa System (through Cedar Lake) can get some calcium from the rocks
1778This sedimentary limestone is there because of the Brent Crater. Meteorite hit millions of years ago, driving down the limestone that was there, under the glacial lake, into the rocks below.
1779After the glaciers scoured everything off, this rock persisted
1780Down the Brent Crater trail you see:
1781Bulblet Ferns which are calciphilic ferns (only grow on limestone so only in this area of Algonquin Park)
1782Calciphilic plants are also found in the Barron Canyon
1783Also on a geological fault line so see calciphilic plants on the cliffs
1784At the bottom of these cliffs, you have big piles of rock that are called Talus slopes
1785On the talus you have Poison Ivy growing which is calciphilic
1786On the rock faces you see Xanthoria (Sunburst Lichen)
1787In addition to calcium oozing from rocks, you also get calcium because the Barron River branches off of the Petawawa so probably also getting calcium from Cedar Lake
1788Basswood found growing on the talus slope but no where else in Algonquin
1789Basswood seeds have a parachute like structure, like gliders have
1790Calciphilic plants grow in the Barron Canyon because it is a fault and it is a branch of the Petawawa River
1791Two Birds that nest on the higher edges of Barron Canyon are Ravens and Peregrine Falcons
1792Bird that nests on the lower parts of cliff faces on Barron Canyon is the Barn Swallow which is quite rare now, haven’t been here for ~10 years. Another bird that nests in small numbers is a flycatcher called the Eastern Phoebe
1793Both birds put their nests under lower hanging rock
1794Phoebes use moss to camouflage their nests
1795Also have plants that are Subarctic Disjuncts (typically only found further north) on the north facing cliffs of the Barron Canyon because it is colder. On the south facing cliffs, may find plants that grow further south
1796These Subarctic disjuncts are Glacial Relicts
1797Subarctic crustaceans are found in these waters, which are also disjunct and glacial relicts
1798
1799Cedar Lake has Arctic Sculpin
1800Eastern White Cedar are very common in this area, found along the Barron River
1801Deer love feeding on white cedar in the winter. Can tell where deer are browsing in the winter because it forms a Browse Line where there are no leaves from the ground to as high up as the deer can reach
1802Deer were originally absent from Algonquin but became abundant by the early 1900s
1803Deer expanded northward because logging and fires (caused by humans) opened up the landscape. The pioneer species provided better food for deer (young growth is better for deer)
1804Additionally Grey Wolves (who were feeding on moose) were cleared out of the park so deer lost their main predator
1805And there is a fascinating story involving Moose and Wolves. Gray wolves ate Moose and kept out deer but the wolves were killed (shot, snared, poisoned)
1806Originally had Gray Wolves further North, Red Wolves in eastern North America, and Coyotes in the prairies. When a lot of trees in eastern North American were cleared and the Gray Wolves were killed off, Coyotes moved east to fill in the niches and found a more open habitat
1807With better habitat and no Gray Wolves, the White-tailed Deer range expanded northward
1808Wolf found in Algonquin Park today is the
1809Eastern Wolf (formerly the Red Wolf)
1810Originally thought that there was a small eastern race of Gray Wolf, and Red Wolf was confined to a smaller area in Southeast North America, but Red Wolf was all along Eastern North America up to, but not into, Algonquin Park which was occupied by Gray Wolf.
1811Now Red Wolf is very confined
1812 
1813
1814Those in the range that includes Algonquin Park (Algonquin wolves) have been re-named the Eastern Wolf
1815Pretty well confined to the Northern part of the GL-SL forest region
1816Algonquin Wolves population are now one of the best studied in the world
18173 major studies have been done on wolves in the Algonquin Park Area:
18181. Pimlott et al
1819One of first studies done on wolves almost anywhere
18202. Theberge
18213. Patterson
1822Can study wolves by capturing them and putting a collar on them. Called Radio Telemetry when you put a radio transmitter on an animal and track it
1823Findings (Theberge’s work):
1824Male wolves average 28kg
1825Females average 25kg
1826Blood samples showed these wolves weren’t related to Gray Wolves but were related to the Red Wolves in the southern US
1827SCAT Analysis of the droppings can reveal a lot of information on what they are eating
1828Can also tell time of year because guard hairs grow thick in the winter so more hair in the droppings
182980% of SCAT samples studied in Pimlott’s study indicated the Algonquin Wolf had eaten white-tail deer, 10% moose (young calves or old ones, but not bulls in their prime), 10% beavers
1830Theberge’s study indicated the same 3
1831animals but proportions were 1/3 each
1832Deer became less important because they became less abundant because of less logging and fires creating good habitat for white-tail deer, the forests started growing in again
1833
1834Deer carry a brain worm that kills off moose, so as deer started to decline, moose rose up again
1835Beaver benefit from good habitats along the edges of water, as the forest grew back in again
1836
1837
1838BIOL 2903 – Lecture 16
1839Eastern side of Algonquin Park cont’d
1840Eastern Wolves in Algonquin Park cont’d
1841Wolf kills fuel the economy in winter in Algonquin Park in terms of animal life, with animals such as foxes, fishers, martens, and ravens scavenging
1842Is no waste in nature, even the bones are food for certain flies and source of calcium for certain rodents
1843The dominant or Alpha Pair runs the pack
1844Average pack size is 7
1845These are the only ones that breed every spring, this pair ensures others that try are stopped
18464-6 pups are born in dens underground
1847Pups are moved to summer homes called Rendezvous Sites (in Beaver Meadows)
1848Always a parent within earshot to protect them
1849The pups are very vocal at rendezvous sites
1850Wolves howl to communicate
1851Researchers use human howls to locate packs
1852Get as good of a response as recorded wolf howls
1853Algonquin Park Public Wolf Howls are popular events
1854Often move across ice in the winter because it is flat, snow is more compact, and deer eat cedar while moose eat balsam fir which both are found near water. If they find an active beaver lodge, will try to dig in but cannot get through
1855Utilize a variety of habitats, hunting in forests and waters edge, meeting at Rendezvous Sites including boggy sites and beaver meadows
1856Have very cold, fringe of northern habitat in low lying areas with spruce and fir, and even floating peatlands (a little flavour of the boreal forest)
1857Metres apart can have hardwood forest and then very northern animals and plants
1858Elevation (of Algonquin Park on the dome) = colder temperatures
1859In this northern fringe, have typical Boreal Forest plants such as Bunchberry
1860On the peat you have Heath plants such as Labrador Tea and Leatherleaf and carnivorous plants like Round-leaved Sundew and Pitcher-plant
1861Many northern plants and animals reach their southern range limits in Algonquin Park
1862Including Black-backed Woodpecker, Boreal Chickadee, Spruce Grouse, Gray Jay, Great Gray Owl, Marten, Fisher
1863Elevation provides a cool enough habitat
1864Moose come down into the peatlands during the mating season in the fall
1865Eastern Wolves also use peatlands and Beaver Meadows
1866There are likely more beavers on the eastern side of Algonquin
1867
1868Eastern side has some areas where there are more fires so have younger forests and more food for them
1869Water may also be more rich
1870Beaver ponds are shallow water Lentic (still, fresh water) systems
1871Lakes are also Lentic aquatic habitats, but they are much deeper than beaver ponds
1872Shallow sheltered bays support plants that also grow in ponds (less current and wind affecting it). In this way they are similar to ponds
1873Waves create currents near the shore, creating conditions not unlike those in streams and rivers
1874Near shores of lakes can be habitat for some plants and animals that live in rivers
1875Ex. Pickerel-weed likes a bit of current and can find it along the edge of rivers and bays where there is current (in a lake this is caused by wind action)
1876Lakes have one feature that rivers and ponds do not have. Since they are deeper, you have this heating happening all summer, primarily at the surface, causing Stratification of the lake’s water
1877A lot warmer with uniform temperature (and levels of oxygen) in the Epilimnion at the surface, then drops sharply throughout the Thermocline, and then is cold and uniform temperature in the Hypolimnion
1878A couple times a year something dramatic happens inside the lake water
1879In the winter the coldest lake water is near the surface. In
1880 
1881winter, most lake water is uniform 4oC except near the surface	   
1882where it is near 0oC. How can cold water be sitting on warm		   
1883water? Water at 4oC is at its densest (heaviest) so it sinks		 
1884In the spring you get warm winds coming from the south. The surface warms to 4oC. Winds create currents that cause a Turnover where bottom water comes to the surface, and surface water goes to the bottom. At this time all water is 4oC
1885Nutrients are brought up to the surface
1886Oxygen is brought down to the bottom
1887This also happens in the fall where all water is 4oC as well
1888They are called the Spring Turnover and Fall Turnover respectively
1889Lake shores are habitat
1890Speckled Alder (likes poor nutrient areas) often grows here
1891Spotted Sandpipers feed along rocky shores, especially in Algonquin Park. Distinct behaviour of wagging their tails up and down
1892Mink (a weasel) hunt along shores (as opposed to Otters that hunt in the lake water)
1893
1894Hold heat so on colder nights there is a lot of mist causing beautiful sunrises
1895The Algonquin Highlands (including Algonquin Park) is a very special part of the GL-SL Forest Region on the Canadian Shield
1896Georgian Bay Biosphere Reserve is a UNESCO-designated ecologically unique region
1897It is the world’s largest freshwater Archipelago – Collection of islands (generally found in tropical areas)
1898347,000 hectares of shoreline ecosystem stretching from the Severn River to the French River
1899Eastern Foxsnakes occur along the Georgian Bay shores
1900Rare in Ontario, mostly found in the Carolinian
1901So do Massasaugas (rattle snakes)
1902Mainly here, only a few scattered sightings elsewhere
1903And Hog-nosed Snakes
1904More distributed, but area along Georgian Bay is so important
1905The same is true for Fived-lined Skinks (endangered in the Carolinian F.R.)
1906The Frontenac Axis (Frontenac Arch)
1907Narrow neck of Canadian Shield (igneous) rock connecting with the St. Lawrence River, and surrounded on both sides by limestone (sedimentary) rock
1908
1909
1910BIOL 2903 – Lecture 17
1911Frontenac Axis (Arch) Cont’d
1912Some of the islands are part of the Thousand Islands National Park
1913Rocks are Canadian “hield rock (so not layered and don’t effervesce)
1914The Frontenac Axis is part of the Canadian Shield
1915Sticks up through the limestone
1916rock
1917On this rock we find typical Canadian Shield plants such as ferns growing that like this
1918Ex. Ferns such as Rock Polypody, Marginal Shield Fern
1919
1920Ex. Other plants such as Columbine
1921Animals include ones we saw into the Algonquin Highlands and the Boreal Forest such as Marten, Fisher, Eastern Wolf (rarely come down but can because of the continuous forest), Red Squirrel (find them as long as there is coniferous trees)
1922Have typical GL-SL forest region deciduous trees
1923Sugar Maple is the dominant tree
1924Other common include Yellow Birch and American Beech
1925Have Eastern Hemlock with the short, soft needles
1926Have White Pine
1927Have typical hardwood forest spring ephemerals
1928Have typical hardwood forest birds that we saw in Algonquin such as Scarlet Tanager,
1929Pileated Woodpecker
1930Have other animals that were in the Algonquin hardwood forests including Gray Tree Frog, Barred Owl, Eastern Chipmunk
1931Have other more northern animals such as Snowshoe Hare
1932Have elements that are not in the Algonquin Highlands, and are more typical of the Carolinian and not found anywhere else on the Canadian Shield such as White Oak (leaves have very round lobes, contrasting Red Oak which have sharp points to the
1933lobes),	(very southern tree that is common in the Frontenac Axis)
1934Have shrubs that are not found elsewhere like Bladdernut, Prickly Ash (has one caterpillar that feeds on it → Giant Swallowtail)
1935Gray Squirrel love the nuts of Shagbark Hickory, burying them and then digging them up to eat them
1936Gray Squirrel come in black, grey, and sometimes blended colours
1937Mostly gray down south in the USA
1938Northern part of the range they are mostly black. Thought to be to help keep them warmer. Normally the further north you go the animals are lighter, but since it is not too cold at the northern limits of there range (don’t go into the Boreal Forest), so black can be beneficial since not that far north
1939Have a southern rabbit, the Eastern Cottontail which does not turn white in the winter (brown year-round) and much smaller feet and ears than Snowshoe Hare. White, fluffy tail is visible when running
1940
1941The Frontenac Axis contains more Carolinian species than any other part of the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Forest Region on the Canadian Shield (same not trough about the lowlands)
1942It is also the warmest part of the GL-SL FR on the Canadian Shield
19431. Most southern part of the Canadian Shield
19442. Lower elevation than other parts of the Canadian Shield
19453. A weak Lake Effect due to the St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario
1946
1947Results in the increased number of Southern plants and animals
1948Have Eastern Coyotes throughout (occasionally wolves come through)
1949Find some animals that don’t go further north in Ontario and not found elsewhere on
1950the Canadian Shield
1951Ex. Birds such as Yellow-Throated Vireo, and the Cerulean Warbler which is a canopy warbler that is rare throughout Ontario, but most abundant in the Frontenac Axis. Classified as “threatened”
1952Also have a Red-bellied Woodpecker which are poorly named because they have a white belly (with a little red spot), but flaming orange top and back of the head
1953Eastern Screech-Owl are small owls that are cavity adopters
1954Have only lizard found in Eastern Canada → the Five-lined Skink
1955Found on Canadian Shield, especially south facing slopes
1956Have southern snakes such as Eastern Ribbon Snake which is common around beaver ponds especially (has a white cheek, and cleaner stripes than Garter Snakes), and the Gray Rat Snake that can climb trees and are constrictors (only a couple populations in Ontario, 1 in the Carolinian that is considered endangered, and another in the Frontenac Axis that is only considered threatened)
1957One special shrub that is only found on the Frontenac Axis, called Deerberry
1958Extremely rare plant in Canada
1959Is a rare pine tree which is the only one with needles in clusters of 3 (like “3 strikes and your out”), called Pitch Pine
1960Have these longs “plates” of bark with colour that looks similar to Red Pine
1961Appearance looks like a cross between White and Jack pine
1962Pretty well confined in Canada to the Frontenac Axis
1963See fern growing on the rocks called Purple-stemmed Cliffbrake that is calciphilic.
1964Maidenhair Spleenwort is also a cliff growing, calciphilic fern. These are there because in parts of the Frontenac Axis there is metamorphosed limestone = Marble (crystalline limestone)
1965The marble allows for more diversity in plants (Ex. lots of poison ivy and white trillium which are more common in limestone areas so marble provides good habitat)
1966UNESCO has designated the Frontenac Arch a World Biosphere Reserve
1967Fisher arrived into this part of Ontario not from Algonquin Park but from the
1968Adirondacks
1969
1970A2A Region group formed to preserve the area from Algonquin Park to Adirondack State Park, joined by the Frontenac Axis. Is an important corridor for animals (Ex. Moose, Fisher, Eastern Wolves) moving between the 2 parks.
1971GL-SL FR is the only forest region that is on 2 physiographic regions
1972The Superior GL-SL Forest Region
1973Still Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Forest Region on the Canadian Shield
1974Can expect to see White Pine because in the GL-SL FR, but also see Black Spruce
1975Is a Lake Effect causing warmer winters but coastal summers so may see more northern plants near the water’s edge (Ex. American Dune Grass, Butterwort)
1976Is a large provincial park, Lake Superior Provincial Park
1977At the cut-off between the Boreal Forest and GL-SL FR
1978The Superior GL-SL Forest Region has many of the same subarctic disjunct species found in the Superior Boreal (Ex. Butterwort)
1979How can you tell that you are not in the Superior Boreal?
1980The presence of White Pine and Sugar Maple and Yellow Birch
1981Lake Superior has a lot of fish and so has a good diversity of fish-eating birds such as the Red-breasted Merganser
1982Agawa Bay in Lake Superior has remarkable pictographs (paintings made by natives, documenting a journey across the lake, which can be very rough, in canoes)
1983The Superior GL-SL Forest Region adds dramatic beauty as well as biodiversity
1984Ex. unique basalt islands
1985The Western or Prairie GL-SL Forest Region
1986Sits on the Canadian Shield
1987Precambrian rock (very old, 2 billion years), with Metamorphosed Limestone in parts
1988Near Kenora is layered rock that looks like sedimentary limestone but has dykes (intrusion from molten rock flow) going up through it. So, it is sedimentary but not young, is really old rock
1989It is on the Canadian Shield, yet the Prairie GL-SL Forest Region is flat
1990Because of the glaciers and glacial Lake Agassiz left behind a lot of sediment deposits, covering the rocky area
1991
1992
1993BIOL 2903 – Lecture 18
1994The Western or Prairie GL-SL Forest Region Cont’d
1995Has influences of prairie winds coming in and is very flat not because of the rock, but because of sediments left behind by Lake Agassiz making it level
1996Rainy River Area
1997Find some forests that are almost all Trembling Aspen (poplar)
1998As a result of fire, because of dry prairie winds and less precipitation
1999Key difference for knowing if you are in the Western GL-SL and not the Western Boreal forest is the presence of White and Red Pines
2000Also have a mixture of hardwood trees, including an oak called Bur Oak that you do not find much of elsewhere on the Canadian Shield. Have another oak called Hill’s Oak whose leaves have pointy lobes like red oak but the leaves are more narrow and is an indicator species for this region
2001Forests in this area have been largely removed because of agriculture
2002Only part of Ontario with true prairie meaning there are some prairie species
2003Indian Paintbrush is more of a western plant that is common in the Western GL-SL FR
2004Marbled Godwit are giant sandpipers that are western/prairie breeding birds
2005Black-billed Magpie is another prairie bird species that is also just in this area of Ontario
2006Western Meadowlark is a grassland bird species of the prairies, but also common in the Rainy River area
2007Prairie species are common near Lake of the Woods (at border with Manitoba)
2008There is also remnant prairie species at Stanley
2009Lake of the Woods Area
2010Plenty of Sandhill Cranes who leap in the air and bow as they do courtship dances
2011Sharp-tailed Grouse is a north western grouse found here in big numbers
2012White-tailed Jackrabbit is a prairie animal that is also found in this area of Ontario and is much bigger than the Snowshoe Hare (including head, ears, and feet). Is an indicator species for this area of Ontario (very western)
2013Lake Agassiz left behind a lot of sand and silt deposits that are easy to dig into making it a good habitat for Fossorial (burrowing) animals such as Groundhogs (darker coloured out here), Badgers (mostly night hunting predatory animal that is a prairie animal but found in this area of Ontario with flattened claws developed for digging), and Franklin’s Ground Squirrels (“prairie dogs”, generally found in Prairies but also this area of western Ontario, with flattened claws for digging)
2014Lake of the Woods is near Rainy River
2015Lots of fish so lots of fish-eating birds
2016
2017Lots of Double-crested Cormorants which are also all through the east and down to Carolinian (so not indicator)
2018Also have Ospreys
2019But there are prairie species that are prevalent
2020Franklin’s Gulls
2021American White Pelicans (largest nesting colony of these in North America is in Lake of the Woods. Have big bills and pouch for netting fish)
2022Another prairie species is Yellow-headed Blackbird which is a blackbird with a yellow head that is common in the marshes of Lake of the Woods
2023Now going to the two parts of GL-SL FR not on the Canadian Shield and are instead on the GL-SL Lowland physiographic region
2024Underlain by sedimentary limestone rock which is much younger than Canadian Shield rock
2025Bedrock = sedimentary rock, rich in Calcium
2026The eastern part is called the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland
2027Western boundary is the Frontenac Axis on the Canadian Shield
2028The western portion is called the Great Lakes Lowland
2029The Lowland is flat due to sedimentary rock and glacial deposits
2030Rivers, such as the Ottawa River, and the Mississippi River (flows through the Ottawa – St. Lawrence Lowland)
2031Rivers are quite rich because of good source of nutrients
2032Along the rivers (especially where there is less current) Cattail Marshes are common
2033Periodic Flooding and Drawdowns are important elements of marsh ecology
2034In terms of nutrient cycling, there are different kinds of bacteria, some that decompose material under the aid of oxygen (called Aerobic Bacteria), the others break down material but do not need oxygen (called Anaerobic Bacteria), but it is good to have both to complete the full cycle of decomposition. Water floods in getting rid of oxygen, and when the water lowers, the bacteria are exposed to oxygen. So different bacteria can work at different times
2035Flushes of nutrients in these systems
2036Are rich systems, providing a lot of food
2037Cattail Marshes are shallow water lentic (not much current) aquatic systems
2038Dominant plants that forms these habitats are Cattail
2039Broad leaved are native ones
2040Narrow leaved are not (brought from Asia and are spreading)
2041The 2 get together and hybridize and are spreading through Ontario
2042
2043They grow in the water, forming their own habitat
2044The roots interlock at rhizomes, growing on top of each other, forming their own floating mat
2045Their roots and dead organic remains form a floating mat
2046More grounded closer to shore so very similar to what sphagnum does in nutrient poor environments
2047Plants can grow on top
2048One plant that is particularly common in cattail marshes is the Marsh Fern
2049Good indicator you are in a cattail marsh
2050Blue Flag (Wild Iris) is quite common
2051Plants in cattail marshes are food for certain animals
2052Cattail Moth Caterpillar eats the flowers of cattails
2053Muskrat are a cattail specialist, and will cut channels through the cattails
2054Females kill their neighbours babies
2055Tails are flat side to side (opposite of beavers whose tail is flat top to bottom) which helps with swimming
2056Use a lot of cattail material to build their houses
2057Not only eat plants, they also love clams
2058Red-winged Blackbirds are common inhabitants
2059Have a warbler that likes cattail marshes called the Common Yellowthroat
2060Marsh Wren are tiny birds that are constantly singing loud and building dumby nests to entice females
2061Swamp Sparrow is a common inhabitant of marshes, making the name bad as swamps and marshes are different (a characteristic of swamps is to have trees growing in the habitat which is not the case marshes)
2062Some birds that are found in the cattail marshes in the clay belt boreal can also be found in the cattail marshes here
2063Rails such as the Virginia Rail are real indicators of cattail marshes, compressed side to side to walk through cattails, and long toes for walking on plants
2064American Coot is kind of a hybrid in that it can be found in cattail marshes but also in more open water and dive
2065Have lobed feet that open when in water for more surface area
2066Pied-billed Grebes also have lobed toes
2067There are three layers of plant life in a marsh
2068Cattails are Emergents (zone where plants are sticking out/emerging from the water)
2069
2070Greater Bladderwort is a Submergent (zone with plants under the water)
2071Even though nutrient rich, still have carnivorous plants (they are not confined to nutrient poor areas)
2072But greater diversity in nutrient poor zones
2073Also have zone of plants floating on the water
2074Duckweed is Floating vegetation
2075White Water-lilies have floating leaves and flowers, but submerged stems and rhizomes (root like parts)
2076Because of calcium from bedrock, being further south, and flooding and drawbacks, cattail marshes are very nutrient rich
2077Full of insect life because of all the plants
2078Yellow pond-lily is common. On their leaves you find flies that are sucking up nutrients
2079Marsh Bluets are common marsh damselflies
2080Nymphs live in the water, nutrient rich so lots of food during aquatic stage of dragonflies and damselflies
2081Being a lentic water system, Skimmers are common
2082Like in beaver ponds
2083Lots of amphibians that are here year round
2084
2085Ex.
2086(male when eye is smaller than
2087
2088tympanum/eardrum) which is not freeze tolerant, down in mud during winter
2089Lots of predatory animals such as Northern Water Snakes
2090Lots of turtles such as Painted Turtle (different belly appearance than those in the western boreal forest) and Snapping Turtle (northern limit is the north edge of GL-SL FR because of temperature)
2091Because of frogs and fish in the water, marshes are great spots for American Bittern and Great Blue Heron. Also a tiny bittern called the Least Bittern that is a threatened species
2092Great Egret is a Carolinian species that is expanding northward.
2093As big as great blue heron but white in colour
2094Black-crowned Night Heron is primarily active at night
2095Have a tiny heron called the Green Heron
2096A lot of diversity of Herons and Bitterns in cattail marshes. These are rich habitats that can support a lot of birds
2097Different kinds of ducks in cattail marshes than beaver ponds
2098Mallard have wide bills for filter feeding. Water in marshes tend to be shallow so they don’t dive down, they stay at the top of the water and bend down
2099Ducks like this are commonly called Dabblers or Puddle Ducks and are the dominant group of ducks in cattail marshes
2100Lowlands have much richer habitats adding a lot of biodiversity to the province
2101
2102
2103BIOL 2903 – Lecture 19
2104GL-SL FR on the GL-“L Lowlands cont’d
2105“eparated by “neck” of the Frontenac Axis
2106Ottawa-“t. Lawrence Lowland Cont’d
2107Bedrock = sedimentary rock, rich in Calcium
2108A lot more nutrients allowing for development of cattail marshes
2109Dabblers = puddle ducks (which filter feed)
2110Cattail marshes are a type of wetland
2111Wetland is simply any habitat that contains water (Ex. bog, fen, etc.)
2112Cedar Woods (swamps)
2113Swamps are different than marshes because there are trees growing in them that are water-adapted (water tolerant to certain extent)
2114Tree species include Black Ash and Eastern White Cedar (why
2115they’re called cedar woods)
2116Are dark habitats because of dense cedar canopy overhead
2117Moist and cool below allowing for a lot of moss growth
2118Very little on understory because of dense shade from above
2119Good spots for orchids which like calcium, such as Round- leaved Orchid (have/need big, round leaves that are parallel to the ground because of all the shade)
2120Showy Lady’s-slipper and Yellow Lady’s-slipper are found in cedar swamps in areas where there are openings for a little more light to come down
2121Also occur in clay belt boreal because is calcium rich and cedar swamps are there
2122Other wetland habitats are short-lived
2123Ephemeral (Temporary) Ponds occur in these woodland areas but don’t last long (drying up by late summer) and are so important for amphibians that lay their eggs here in the spring, tadpoles transforming to adult stage before these dry up
2124Include Wood Frog and Blue-spotted Salamanders use these
2125Peatlands are rare in the lowlands
21261) Too warm
21272) Lots of nutrients and decomposition
2128
2129Growth needs to be faster than decomposition but in some areas down here, those conditions are met
2130Those that exist are often fens because rich in nutrients
2131The fens down here are called Rich Fens because they are rich in nutrients
2132White Lake Fen
2133Lots of calcium in these fens, so tend to have orchids
2134Ex. Rose Pogonia, Grass Pink
2135
2136Also has unusual animals
2137The smallest dragonfly in north America → Elfin Skimmer
2138Fens don’t have much water movement
2139so perfect for skimmers
2140Bogbean grows in fens with a little more water movement and nutrients
2141Bogbean Moth caterpillar eats bogbean and is found in only two locations in Canada: White Lake Fen and Richmond Fen
2142Other peatlands of note include:
2143Alfred Bog
2144Because it is a peat bog, find some nesting birds at their southern limits
2145Such as Palm Warbler which is a Boreal Forest nesting warbler, nesting on the ground in peatlands
2146Gray Birch is one of the Alfred Bog specialties
2147Mer Bleue
2148Have trees with Witch’s Broom
2149Trail goes through actual peatland where you can see Black Spruce and heath and carnivorous plants
2150Has an extremely rare, endangered species, the
2151Spotted Turtle
2152Newington Bog
2153Typical peatland plants such as Labrador Tea, Leatherleaf, and Bog Laurel
2154Rhodora is a rare shrub, only found here and Alfred Bog in Ontario
2155Bog Elfin is a tiny butterfly
2156All these peatlands are there because as the glaciers were melting north, the land was depressed so in came the Champlain Sea
2157The Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland was affected by the Champlain Sea
2158Sea was blocked to the west by the Canadian Shield
2159Sea left behind huge deposits of clay and sand
2160The Champlain Sea left behind a legacy of fossils
2161Slack Road Sand Dunes were left behind by the Champlain Sea
2162Very rare and threatened beetle found in the sand called the
2163Ghost Tiger Beetle (blends in with sand)
2164Constance Bay sands are habitat for Orange Milkweed
2165Which butterflies love
2166
2167In areas with huge sand and gravel deposits, see holes in the side that are nests for birds that exploit this type of habitat, digging burrows
2168A lot of the forest in the Lowland has been lost to agriculture
2169Belted Kingfisher and Bank Swallow are bank-burrowing birds
2170Gillies Grove in Arnprior is a remnant of the original forest
2171Forest Fragmentation creates problems
2172Fragmented landscape is where there was continuous forest at one time, but now it has been reduced to a few fragments
2173Size of habitat becomes too small
2174Forest interior species don’t live at the edge of forests, they need to live at the heart of forests. If only small fragment left behind, there is not much of an interior to it so cannot survive in the habitat
2175Ex. Wood Thrush and Black-throated Blue Warbler
2176cannot survive in fragments
2177If there is a bad winter and say all the chipmunks died off, they can’t be
2178replaced by other chipmunks
2179So, populations of animals in these fragments can completely die off and not enough influx of animals to replace them
2180Increased brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds
2181More birds in a small stretch of forest will have a cowbird egg in their nest that will lower the reproductive rate of their own type
2182Increased predation especially for ground-nesting birds
2183When animals only come into a forest lot a certain distance, when it is a small forest fragment, they can cover all of it
2184The most dangerous of all is cats (domestic)
2185Can devastate populations
2186Cats kill 200 million birds per year in Canada
2187Wild Turkeys were not native to this area, were brought here. They eat everything from farmer’s seeds, to salamanders, to baby birds
2188Have big appetites and travel in small groups
2189Having big affects on populations
2190Groundhogs and White-tailed Deer have increased in Ontario in the Lowland area because of the clearing of the forests
2191Two “shorebirds” nest in open field habitat
2192Killdeer nest in open terrain, known for broken wing act
2193Upland Sandpiper also benefited from transformation of forest to fields
2194Many other birds feed in agricultural land such as American Crows
2195A gull that has done very well is the Ringed-billed Gulls, coming down as a farmer plows their field to eat invertebrates that are dug up
2196Plowed or tilled fields and grazed fields resemble Tundra and coastal mudflats
2197Some birds land in these habitats during their migration
2198Horned Larks nest in ploughed (tilled) fields
2199
2200Geese such as Snow Geese land in these fields
2201Other Tundra species stop here such as Lapland Longspur and Snow Buntings
2202Migrating sandpipers and plovers stop to feed in tilled fields
2203Field habitats can be like grasslands (if grass grows tall enough)
2204Grasslands are prairie habitats, with grasses growing better in drier areas
2205Have grassland species such as the Savannah Sparrow which have greatly benefited, nesting abundantly
2206Bobolink “sounds like R2-D2” and are a grassland species that have become more common as forests were cleared and farmland came in
2207Fields let go wild become Fallow Fields
2208Plants that grow here are blown in by wind and have small leaves that are oriented at a 45o angle
2209Common mammals that live here are mice, predominantly
2210Meadow Voles
2211
2212
2213BIOL 2903 – Lecture 20
2214GL-“L Forest Region Cont’d
2215Ottawa-“t. Lawrence Lowland Cont’d
2216Grasslands cont’d
2217Fields let go wild become Fallow Fields
2218Common mammals that live here are mice, predominantly
2219Meadow Voles
2220Very important animal because so many predators eat it
2221Northern Shrike (only present in late fall and winter, nest in HBL muskeg in summer), Red- tailed Hawk (found here year round), American Kestrel (a falcon), Short-eared Owl, Snowy Owl (when they come down from the arctic)
2222Important owl is Great Grey Owl which usually only occur here during Irruptions. Can occur here in great numbers in years when there is low food supply in the northwest. Main food is meadow voles
2223They did however nest in the Ottawa area Five years ago
2224Snakes such as Milk Snakes eat meadow voles
2225Red Fox often hunt in Fallow Fields
2226Eastern Coyote were originally only found in the prairies. When the wolves in the east were killed off, Coyotes came in to exploit the new habitat. Only appeared in Ontario around 1900. Some breed with stray wolves, but back bread with the main Coyote population so mostly Coyote with a little bit of wolf genes
2227These are NOT Coywolfs!
2228Wolves have broader noses and much different howls (coyotes won’t answer wolf calls because they typically don’t get along). Also wouldn’t find wolves hunting in a field because they don’t bother with smaller animals
2229Population of meadow voles has grown exponentially as more habitat has been created for it
2230Most fallow field plants share certain characteristics:
22311) Shade-intolerant
22322) Small leaves at a 45 degree angle
22333) Wind or animal seed dispersal
22344) Non-native (Alien)
2235
2236Majority of them are non-native, Ex. Dandelion, Blueweed, Chicory, Queen Anne’s Lace, Ox-eye Daisy
2237Arrived in Ontario because immigrants brought them for their gardens and the seeds escaped and started growing in disturbed areas. Also had a lot of soil in bottom of ships for balance but would dump it close to shore to get lighter and some seeds in this soil would wash up and find good habitat or get blown
2238Many of these cannot grow in forests or established prairie but can in disturbed area such as following tilling of fields
2239Non-native animals are also found in field habitats
2240Gray Partridge were brought here because people like hunting them
2241Find majority of non-native animals were brought here because people liked hunting them for pleasure and for food
2242Ring-necked Pheasant were released here to establish hunt-able populations
2243Wild Turkeys are non-native for most of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowland. Was historically in Ontario, but only in the south in the Carolinian area. In 80s hunters falsely “reintroduced” them when they never had been here
2244A globally rare habitat is found in Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Lowlands
2245Alvar = Limestone “pavement” covered by very thin soil
2246Consist of flat, very weathered limestone with very thin soil on top
2247Alvars are found near Braeside, Almonte, and Kemptville
2248Several plants are indicators of alvars
2249A lot of calciphiles because of limestone
2250Fringed Gentian
2251Ram’s-head Lady’s-slipper is an alvar species
2252Eastern Red Cedars grow well on alvars
2253Loggerhead Shrikes will nest in Red Cedars
2254Is an endangered species. Likes nesting in hedgerows of Red Cedars which are being cleared out for farmland. Also fly low across roads and with increased traffic in rural areas, the more hazards
2255Also impale prey like Northern Shrike
2256
2257Hawthorns are important shrubs for shrikes. Great place to nest as the thorns deter predators
2258Alvars are prevalent in another part of the GL-SL Forest Region → the
2259Great Lakes Lowland
2260Great Lakes Lowland
2261Far more Alvars in this area than the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland such as
2262Carden Alvar (Carden Plain)
2263Filled with Prairie Smoke which form beautiful, swaying pink carpets
2264A bird common in Alvar habitats is Eastern Meadowlark
2265A sandpiper that loves Alvars is the Upland Sandpiper
2266Another bird that likes Alvars is Eastern Bluebird who are not forest birds so have done better since colonization
2267North of Belleville lies the Napanee Plain (Alvar)
2268Also has a lot of Prairie Smoke
2269Rice Lake Plains also has Alvar habitat
2270Tallgrass Prairie is present in the Rice Lake Plains
2271Has really tall grasses (up to 3 m) such as Prairie Cord Grass, and Big Bluestem
2272Are prairie species that are only present in Ontario in places where there are Tallgrass Prairie remnants left
2273One of the most endangered habitats in North America
2274< 1% of tallgrass prairie habitat is left in North America
2275Fire-driven habitats (controlled burns have been done to keep the habitat replenishing itself)
2276Oak Savannah
2277Savannah = Tallgrass prairie with 10-35% tree cover
2278These trees are primarily oak trees (hence the name)
2279One of the most endangered ecological communities in North America
2280White and Black oaks are present
2281White has the round lobes on leaves
2282Black looks more like Red or Yellow oak, with longer points
2283Alderville Black Oak Savannah
2284Has Prairie Buttercup growing there
2285Also lots of Lupines
2286Mottled Duskwing butterfly is endangered and likes oak savannahs (rare habitat)
2287There are more species in the Great Lakes Lowland than in the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland
2288It is warmer (further south)
2289It is also larger
2290
2291And it borders the Great Lakes so have habitats not found in the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland
2292Have many problems here such as forest fragmentation and Invasive Species
2293Dog-strangling Vine which loves open habitats
2294European Hare is not native (only non-native hare we have in Ontario) and were brought here and raised in captivity for food and some escaped. Really big with very long legs.
2295South of Belleville lies Prince Edward County
2296Point Traverse (Long Point) is the south-eastern tip of Prince Edward County
2297This is a National Wildlife Area
2298Whenever you have spits of land that go out into big bodies of water, it is important for migrating song birds
2299Lake Ontario greatly affects the climate (moderating it) and is also habitat
2300This part of Ontario is known for the large number of water fowl that will spend winter here
2301More spending winter here than in previous years because of zebra muscles
2302Zebra Muscles are a non-native clam species that kill off other clam species
2303Quaga Muscles also becoming more common
2304Diving ducks dive down to feed on these muscles such as White-winged Scoter, Long-tailed Duck, Common Goldeneye, Greater Scaup, and Red Head
2305Long points of land jutting out into the Great Lakes are important sites for migrating birds
2306Here because there is food. One food they are feasting on is the huge number of Midges
2307They are coming out of the lake as adults and are food for the migrating birds
2308There is a banding station at the tip of Point Travers
2309
2310
2311BIOL 2903 – Lecture 21
2312GL-“L Forest Region Cont’d
2313Great Lakes Lowland Cont’d
2314Prince Edward County Cont’d
2315Bobcat sightings have increased near Belleville/Napanee, and Rainy River
2316Lake Ontario greatly affects the climate
2317Prince Edward County is a National Wildlife Area
2318Called this because it is a federally protected area for bird migration
2319Birds here are gleaning midges off leaves
2320Prince Edward Point Bird Observatory is a banding station
2321Catch them in mist nets. Take measurements. Blow on feathers to part them to see how much fat they have (their condition) underneath because fat is fuel they need for migrating. Also weigh them in special containers. Put numbered band on it before releasing it so they can tell where it has been if it is captured again
2322Sandbanks Provincial Park
2323Massive sand dunes on the shorelines left by glacial Lake Iroquois
2324Lake Iroquois was the bigger predecessor of Lake Ontario (Lake Ontario is inside where Lake Iroquois was)
2325Sandbanks Provincial Park contains the world’s largest fresh- water baymouth sand barrier dune formation
2326Means there is a mouth of a bay there which has freshwater (not salt) where the sand was pushed up at the edge of the lake, creating massive sand dunes
2327In this dry area there are special flora: Cottonwood (type of poplar common in this area)
2328Have a series of stranded beach ridges here, showing the old shorelines, but these are different. Between them is not land, there are these linear bodies of water between the ridges (sand dunes). These are called Pannes.
2329These are shallow water systems that are between the former edges of Lake Iroquois
2330Couple rare dragonflies that like these spots
2331Presqu’ile Provincial Park
2332Also has some sand left here
2333Most of Presqu’ile is a Tombolo – What was formerly an island that got joined to the mainland by the water depositing materials
2334
2335Current bouncing off mainland and island was depositing sand all the time, until they joined together
2336 
2337Has some pannes
2338Some flora that is found there is a more associated with Alvar habitats
2339One Alvar indicator is Fringed Gentian that is common
2340in Presqu’ile
2341Forests have temporary ponds for amphibians that lay their eggs
2342Have trees with cavities with Barred Owls for example nesting inside
2343So has deciduous forest aspect to it
2344See a lot of trees, such as cedar, that are pruned at the bottom
2345This is caused by deer for which there are a lot in
2346Presqu’ile
2347White-tailed deer have become so common (because no predators such as wolves) that deer “culls” take place, which are organized occurrences where people form a line to drive out the deer and shoot as many as possible to try to control the population
2348In large populations (when lack of predators) deer have a heavy affect on vegetation
2349Large Cattail marshes are found in Lake Ontario in and near
2350Presqu’ile
2351Quite prevalent in Lake Ontario because there are more nutrients
2352“the fingers” are spits of land coming out with water between them with these marshes
2353
2354These “fingers” are remnants from when the Tombolo was forming
2355Fingers are old beach ridges that are drier because they are mostly sand and have Cottonwood growing there
2356Great Blue Herons and Great Egrets feed and nest here
2357
2358Also see Least Bittern which are rare and endangered
2359Mute Swan is a non-native, introduced species
2360Have become common in marshes and are aggressive, forcing other birds out
2361The waves of Lake Ontario sort material and deposit it and organic material along the shores (material piles up)
2362They become covered with algae
2363Algae provides food for invertebrates that are food for migrating birds
2364In the fall (waters generally higher in the spring) you see lots of sandpipers here
2365Less of these kinds of spots left on the shores of the Great Lakes, making Presqu’ile very important
2366Feed on the invertebrates in the algae
2367Birds of prey, especially Falcons may feed on these shorebirds
2368In recent years parts of the beach have been closed off from public access. There is an endangered species, the Piping Plover that have started nesting in Presqu’ile for the first time in 100 years. Whenever they are found, the beach is closed off so that they can monitor them
2369Owen Point in the park is important spot for nesting birds that are normally found on islands (such as Terns), because it is a point of land with a lot of water around it
2370High Bluff Island is an important nesting site for gulls, herons, and in recent years → Double-crested Cormorants which are now abundant
2371Nest in colonies
2372Droppings are so acidic that when they are on an island for a long time, all the plants including trees die
2373Eat a lot of the non-native fish that have been introduced in the lake
2374Originally not found on the Great Lakes. Now abundant on the Great Lakes, controversial culls have been conducted in Presqu’ile Provincial Park and other sites
2375Presqu’ile has been a popular spot for duck hunting. Tip of Owen Point is closed off for 4 days each year for duck hunters to go out there
2376Finding dead, washed up birds has been more prevalent in recent years. Autopsies have revealed the cause of death to be the bacterium Clostridium botulinum which causes Botulism
2377Non-native Zebra Mussels that came in on boats from Europe. These as well as the non-native Quagga
2378
2379Mussels filter feed and concentrate the bacteria. Boat of these are Invasive Species, taking over completely, killing off other clams
2380Round Gobies (fish) are Invasive and Non-native species that are eating small clams such as Quagga and Zebra mussels that contains the bacterium which accumulate in their system
2381Birds that then eat a lot of these fish also accumulate the bacteria in their system. Birds that eat these contaminated fish eventually lose muscle control and die. Botulism is a classic example of Bioaccumulation
2382Symptoms of botulism include “limp neck”
2383Also is a spot for Monarch Butterflies migrating through
2384Wolfe Island is near Kingston
2385Because it is on Lake Ontario, lots of migrating water fowl
2386Including Tundra Swans
2387Are Bald Eagles nesting locally around there, feeding on fish and ducks
2388At the west point is Big Sandy Bay Conservation Area
2389Have evidence of sand dunes pushed up there by Lake Iroquois
2390On the sand find things like Tiger Beetles
2391Grasses colonize and stabilize sand
2392Have special grasses including American Beach Grass
2393Have plants that grow at maritime edges such as Beach Pea
2394Flat from limestone so large part has been converted for farming
2395Been very popular spots for geese and other water fowl that land in these fields in the spring and fall and forge
2396Open, flat area resembles the Tundra nesting habitats so can get a lot of these Tundra birds here in the winter
2397Because of open fields, meadow voles can be here in large numbers, making it a good spot for birds of prey (majority of them feed on meadow voles)
2398Have hawks and ravens
2399Famous in the winter for Snowy Owls
2400Short-eared Owl hunt during the crepuscular times of day, especially meadow voles. Most owls wait to spot prey, then swoop down but these search for prey while flying
2401Wind turbines dominate the Wolfe Island landscape
2402
2403All these migratory birds coming through here have all these obstacles. Some birds are killed
2404(in Canada ~17,000 birds per year)
2405Horned Larks and Tree Swallows are 2 species that seem to have a problem with wind turbines
2406Some bats are migratory. Cannot fly across huge bodies of water so tend to island hop. Bats seem to be drawn to the wind turbines. They actually are able to avoid the blades, they die because the pressure change created causes their lungs to explode
2407Turbines are a more serious threat to bats than birds
2408White-tailed deer are abundant
2409Are having huge affects on vegetation
2410Coyotes have come to the island in recent years but since they feed mostly on meadow voles, they aren’t controlling the deer population
2411Being surrounded by Lake Ontario moderates the climate
2412Amherst Island
2413Lots of gulls, ducks, and also have bald eagles hunting these
2414Like Wolfe Island, a lot has been converted to farmland
2415Lots of deer and meadow voles in the fields
2416Hawks and ravens feed on the meadow voles
2417Also have Snowy Owls coming down here in big numbers
2418Owl Woods is a forest remnant on the island
2419Is a nature reserve
2420In the winter it can have high numbers of Owls roosting in the day time
2421Have Jack Pines in this area which owls often roost on. Can see many different species of owls close together
2422Often find voles stashed by owls over branches
2423At the east tip is the Martin Edwards Reserve with nice shores that harbour migrating birds
2424Wind turbines are starting to be constructed
2425
2426
2427BIOL 2903 – Lecture 22
2428GL-“L Forest Region Cont’d
2429Great Lakes Lowland Cont’d
2430Flat limestone “pavement” underlies Alvars
2431Alvars are particularly plentiful in the northern part of the Great Lakes Lowland
2432The largest number of alvars in Ontario is found on the Bruce Peninsula and Manitoulin Island
2433The limestone is a special form called Dolostone (harder than other limestones, wearing down better)
2434Bruce Peninsula
2435Neck between Lake Huron from Georgian Bay o	Home to many calciphilic plants like Poison Ivy o	Fringed Gentians grow on Bruce alvars
2436Closed on cloudy days, opened on sunny days, because their main pollinators, bees, only fly on sunny days.
2437Close on cloudy days to protect floral parts from rain
2438Ram’s-head Lady’s-slippers found only on alvars
2439Bruce Peninsula are home to many globally rare plants
2440Lakeside Daisy is only found in Great Lakes Alvars
2441Only found round the Great Lakes (Great Lakes Endemic)
2442Is logo of Ontario Natural Heritage Information Centre
2443Dwarf Lake Iris is also Great Lakes Endemic
2444“Dwarf” because only size of film canister (~3cm)
2445Will find coastal sand dunes with Maritime plants
2446Such as Beach Pea
2447Sea Rocket is another Maritime plant
2448There are massive sand dunes on Manitoulin Island
2449Sand Dunes are habitat for other Great Lakes Endemics
2450Pitcher’s Thistle on Manitoulin Island (a Great Lakes Endemic)
2451Hill’s Thistle is yet another Great Lakes Endemic growing on the Bruce Peninsula
2452Sauble Beach on coast of Lake Huron has great sand beaches where there are nests of Piping Plovers which is an Endangered Species
2453Banding shows that these came from Michigan
2454Will start doing a broken act to lure predators from the nest
2455When a nest is found, a cage is put over the nest with big enough openings for the female to walk through,
2456
2457but not large enough for a predator to get in. The beach is then fenced off
2458Unlike other parts of the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Lowland, there are many fens on the Bruce Peninsula
2459Hardly any bogs because it is warmer and there is a fair amount of nutrients here as well
2460Colder at the northern end of the Bruce Peninsula, allowing for there to be a lot of northern plants
2461A lot of Pitcher Plants
2462Subarctic disjuncts such as Butterwort grow here
246344 species of orchids grow here (greatest diversity in Ontario)
2464Have Yellow Lady’s-slipper and “howy Lady’s- slipper
2465Calypso is one of the Bruce “specialties”
2466Alaska Rein Orchid is a glacial relict and disjunct population in the Bruce Peninsula
246750 species of ferns grow here (greatest diversity in Ontario)
2468These like calcium, such as Maidenhair Spleenwort,
2469The remarkable diversity of plants gives rise to the title “The Garden of North America”
2470So good for plants here because calcium-rich soil, the diversity of habitats from sand dunes to alvars, and the water (moderating the climate)
2471Bruce Peninsula is nestled between Lake Huron and Georgian Bay, resulting in moderate winters, 140 frost- free days, and more precipitation
2472Longer growing season
2473Has the threatened Massasauga Rattlesnake
2474Is a ridge running through the Bruce Peninsula to Niagara Falls, called the Niagara Escarpment
2475Has some elevation to it, is like a cliff top
2476Is made of Dolostone (a limestone)
2477Many Calciphilic ferns such as the Maidenhair Spleenwort, Walking Fern (can reproduce vegetatively by sprouting another fern from its tips), Wall Rue, and Hart’s-tongue Fern (an extremely rare Bruce Peninsula specialty
2478Has the oldest trees in North America which are >1000 years old!
2479See exposed roots, going down the cliff from a tree falling, these roots growing through the
2480
2481fallen tree, and over time the tree around the roots rots away
2482The Niagara Escarpment is another UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve
2483Manitoulin Island
2484Largest freshwater island in the world (2,766 km2)
2485Carolinian Forest Region
2486Lies on Great Lakes Lowland physiographic region
2487Boundary is a temperature, not physical feature
2488o	+8oC Isotherm (average daily temperature for the year) = Northern Boundary of Carolinian F.R.
2489Boundary could expand northward with climate change
2490
2491
2492BIOL 2903 – Lecture 23
2493Carolinian Forest cont’d
2494Southern-most zone in Ontario and Canada
2495Also known as the Eastern Deciduous Forest as most are deciduous trees that drop their leaves in the fall
2496Characteristics:
24972. 87% is underlain by sand or clay
24981. Tiny Size! (<0.25% of Canada)
2499Left by glacial Lake Whittlesey
2500A category of mammals that do well in areas of sandy soil are Fossorial animals (that dig in the ground), such as Eastern Mole which have big, flat feet with big claws for digging. Badgers are also present
2501+9OC
25023. Ontario’s longest growing season and warmest average daily temperatures:
2503
2504The Great Lakes modify the Carolinian climate
2505Which is why many southern plants reach their northern range limits here
25064. This forest region has the greatest number of COSEWIC designated Threatened, Rare, or Endangered species in Canada (not just Ontario)
2507Not only includes animals, also includes plants and insects
2508Over >30% of all listed species (threatened, rare, and endangered) are here in the Carolinian zone
2509Prothonotary Warbler is endangered
2510Acadian Flycatcher is endangered
2511Spiny Softshell (with a flat, pancake like shell) is endangered
2512Nodding Pogonia (an orchid) is endangered
2513Small Whorled Pogonia is endangered
2514Badgers are endangered
25155. Most of the Carolinian forest is gone
2516Habitat loss is the major reason for the prevalence of rare species
2517Yet, around 2,000 species of plants including 100 species of tree are still found here
25186. Extremely rich biodiversity
2519Most in Ontario
2520The Carolinian Forest is mostly deciduous (hardwood and broadleaf) forest
2521White Pine are found here
2522Do not find Balsam Fir and White Spruce in the Carolinian Forest Region
2523Shagbark Hickory is one of several types of Hickory found here
2524Bark hangs off as big, loose plates
2525Sassafras is quite common through the Carolinian
2526
2527Grows as a shrub or small tree, broken off twigs smell like lemon
2528Hackberry is another common Carolinian tree
2529There is a butterfly that’s caterpillar only feeds on hackberry
2530leaves → Hackberry Butterfly
2531Tulip-trees are found in a few places including Rondeau Provincial Park
2532Have beautiful, huge flowers growing on them. These bloom
2533high in the canopy so often don’t see them
2534Vines are very prevalent, including Virginia Creeper, Riverbank (Wild) Grape
2535Has a well developed shrub layer, unlike the Boreal Forest
2536Witch-hazel is a southern shrub
2537Forest floor is home to a number of wild flowers
2538The best time to see these wildflowers in the Carolinian is in the early spring
2539Once the leaves on trees open up, they block the light
2540A typical Carolinian species is May-apple which have huge leaves that form dense carpets and the flower is hidden below the leaves
2541Eastern Cottontail are abundant (Snowshoe hares are absent)
2542European Hares are also in the Carolinian
2543Lots of Opossum
2544Eastern Foxsnakes are not confined to the Carolinian region but are considered endangered there
2545Also occur along the east shore of Georgian Bay
2546Massasaugas also occur along Georgian Bay, but have a small population by Windsor. Endangered in the Carolinian
2547Eastern Hog-nosed Snakes also found in the Carolinian and along Georgian Bay
2548The Five-lined Skink is also found in the Carolinian, along Georgian Bay, and is endangered in the Carolinian
2549Many Carolinian species such as this Hooded Warbler occur not much farther north in Ontario
2550o	= Northern Range Limits
2551An important distinction: more plants and animal species are confined to the Carolinian region than any other F.R.
2552Tallgrass Prairie habitats have been especially decimated here
2553Have a few areas with these habitats left including on Walpole Island and Ojibway Prairie Provincial Reserve
2554Prairie Cord Grass, Big Bluestem, and Indian Grass can be 3-4 metres tall
2555Walpole Island has another type of prairie, Oak Savannahs – tallgrass prairies with trees scattered throughout which tend to be Oak Trees
2556Small White Lady’s Slipper is an Oak Savannah species that is endangered
2557Hoary Puccoon is another prairie species
2558
2559Eastern Prairie Fringed Orchid is another prairie orchid species, but not confined to the Carolinian, and is also endangered
2560Great Plains Ladies-tresses is another prairie orchid
2561Fire is an important part of all prairie habitats
2562Grassland habitats are regenerated by fire
2563Prairie habitats arrived in Ontario between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago during the
2564Hypsithermal
2565By mid-1800s, primarily due to agriculture, only 390 km2 of prairie left (10,000 hectares)
2566Today a mere 175 hectares exists
2567There are also prairie habitats in Pinery Provincial Park
2568At the top of the Carolinian, cut-off at the Isotherm
2569Have Oak Savannah (a fire-driven habitat)
2570Find Orange Milkweed growing
2571Northern Pine Barrens Tiger Beetle which is endangered and an indicator species of Oak Savannahs
2572Lake Huron modifies Pinery climatically and physically
2573A lot of sand beaches at the edge of Pinery
2574Also have a lot of large coastal sand dunes
2575A lot of fractured and smooth rocks on top of the sand from water going over it for 100s of years
2576Grasses colonize sand such as American Beachgrass
2577Puccoon is a prairie species that is found in the sand
2578Coastal sand dunes are habitat for Pitcher’s Thistle (Great Lakes endemic), Hog-nosed Snakes
2579Lake Erie
2580Forms long sand spits or points because of the movement of material
2581These “move” forming distinctive “Ridge and Trough”
2582physiography (marking former beach lines)
2583Troughs are often water-filled = “Woodland Sloughs”
2584habitat
2585Three sand spits of note:
25861. Long Point
25872. Rondeau
25883. Point Pelee
258940km long, Long Point is the second longest freshwater peninsula in the world
2590Fowler’s Toad are found on the Tip of Long Point
2591Tip is very important for bird migration
2592Have Long Point Bird Observatory with banding stations at the tip and base of Long Point
2593All the exposed beaches are also important for the migration of sandpipers
2594
2595Long Point Provincial Park is at the base
2596Banding station at the base is also part of the Long Point Bird Observatory
2597Long Point is a UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve (one of 4 in Ontario; Canada has 16)
2598Other 3 are Georgian Bay, Niagara Escarpment, and Frontenac Axis
2599Deer are hosts for Blacklegged Ticks (Deer Ticks)
2600The ticks quest for hosts, using Hallers Organ on their front legs to detect heat and CO2
2601First appeared in Carolinian but now spreading
2602through Ontario
2603Not all carry lime disease bacteria but a number do. When drinking blood, backwash the bacteria
2604Rondeau Provincial Park
2605Tulip-trees are common
2606Also a great spot for bird migration
2607Rondeau has a number of trails that go through Woodland Sloughs
2608Known for having the largest population of the endangered Prothonotary Warbler in Canada
2609Live in Woodland Sloughs
2610The only warblers that are cavity adopters
2611Meadow Voles also found in Woodland Sloughs
2612Point Pelee National Park
2613Point Pelee is the southernmost part of mainland Canada
2614Surrounded by a lot of water so its climate is super modified by Lake Erie
2615Incredibly long growing season and moderated winter
2616Lies on the 42nd parallel (pretty far south. Same parallel as northern California and Barcelona, Spain)
2617Park is shifting as sand is eroded away from some sides and deposited on others, by the moving water
2618Great spot to see birds of migration including sandpipers because of beach habitat
2619
2620
2621BIOL 2903 – Lecture 24
2622Carolinian Forest Region Cont’d
2623Point Pelee National Park cont’d
2624Has typical Carolinian (Eastern Deciduous) forests
2625One trail has a tree with bright red buds → Redbud tree (southern tree, not found much further north)
2626Vines are prevalent
2627Poison Ivy grows here as a vine, growing to 10m tall
2628Have typical deciduous forest animals
2629Gray Squirrels are common
2630Racoons are typical
2631Eastern Screech-Owls reside in the cavities of trees (are cavity adopters)
2632Recall Ridge and Trough physiography
2633Habitat is call Woodland Sloughs (a.k.a. Swamp Forests)
2634Narrow bodies of water with a ridge on each side of them
2635In these sloughs you have wetland animals such as ducks and turtles
2636Have started putting up nesting boxes for the endangered Prothonotary Warblers that have started nesting again in recent years
2637Marsh Boardwalk Trail goes through a marsh
2638Is a rare flower that grows along the trail called the Swamp Rose Mallow (Threatened)
2639Eastern Moles are only found in Canada in the Carolinian in Essex county
2640which includes Point Pelee
2641Southern birds such as White-eyed Vireos and Carolina Wren nest in Pelee
2642Point Pelee is world famous for its bird migration (and watching)
2643Why is Pelee so popular in the spring for bird watching (fraction of number of people in the fall)? Because when flying north, over Lake Erie, land on first visible piece of land at daybreak which is Point Pelee. Additionally, birds are not the same colour from winter to summer, they are more brightly coloured for mating season
2644So, they land here to feed because they are hungry and tired, and look spectacular at this time of year
2645In late May, no leaves are open yet making the birds easy to see
2646Moderated by the Lake Effect
2647Have 2 migration routes merging at Pelee, making it twice as good to see birds
2648Point Pelee is on the Mississippi Flyway
2649Prince Edward Point is on the Atlantic Flyway
2650Have southern birds that nest here such as Orchard Oriole, but also some birds that just pass through
2651
2652Have stray birds that accidently migrate too far north but don’t nest, such as
2653Kirtland’s Warbler
2654Wild Turkey’s are starting to appear in the park
2655Hillman’s Marsh is an important spot for migrating sandpipers
2656Dykes were put up and water of marshes drained to use the rich, organic material at the bottom for farming, isolating Point Pelee from other forests
2657Succession from open farmland back to forest is occurring
2658Eastern Cottontail feed in these areas
2659Like Rondeau, Pelee has a problem with Deer because it is a small area with many rare plants. Have had culls
2660Pricky Pear Cactus is a Point Pelee specialty
2661Forest regenerating would cause a problem because it is shade intolerant, needing open, sunny areas
2662Needs fire to keep its habitat open
2663Do controlled burns to keep the habitat open for the cacti to survive
2664Point Pelee is also famous for its autumn (but not spring) Monarch butterfly migration
2665Cannot fly across a wide body of water so go down to Point Pelee, then wait for the wind direction to be in their favour
2666Huge numbers build up when they have to wait many days to weeks for the right conditions
2667Bird migration does not draw as many people in the fall because of open leaves (making the birds hard to see), birds do not have their breeding plumage, and more young birds that are drab looking
2668The most southern part of Canada (and not part of the mainland) is Pelee Island
2669Blue Racer (a snake) is found only on Pelee Island and a highly endangered species
2670Like to lay eggs on shoreline, under logs. With more development of the shoreline, spots for laying eggs is being reduced
2671Another problem is people introduced Wild Turkeys on the island which eat baby snakes
2672Fox Squirrels are also only found on Pelee Island
2673“Up to this point in the course, have only talked about natural habitats which came about
2674naturally, but changes spawn new habitats and actually benefit some species”
2675Changes to Ontario’s Flora and Fauna
2676New habitats
2677Urban habitat (i.e. with buildings)
2678Are species that have benefited and are now more common
2679American Robin has done very well due to urbanization because more spots to build their nests in safe spots (they like houses) and lawns (topsoil) have replaced forests in cities and towns, which provide habitat for worms which robins eat
2680All Ontario worms are non-native species. Were brought by fishermen or in soil that was dumped from the bottom of ships
2681
2682Rock Pigeons also have more food and shelter
2683All major cities have pigeons, they are doing well in all urban environments
2684Most diverse looking birds in the word, not all look the same which is the case with many birds
2685Non-native, introduced species
2686Three of the most common successful urban birds are introduced species (rock pigeon, house sparrow, European starling)
2687House Sparrow is a non-native, introduced species
2688European Starling is a non-native, introduced species
2689Rock Pigeons, House Sparrows, and European Starlings have something else in common, they like to nest in cavities (Cavity Adopters), so find them nesting in signs, crevasses and holes on buildings
2690Also will nest in natural cavities in trees
2691Rock Pigeons, House Sparrows, and many Starlings do not migrate
2692Urban centres can also benefit native species
2693City provides a great spot for American Crows to have communal roosts (which they do when not nesting) because urban centres have latent heat from buildings, vehicles, etc. creating a bubble of warm air rising up (few degrees warmer than air outside city)
2694In recent years, massive communal roosts have formed in cities such as Ottawa
2695People like nice trees in their yards, such as Mountain-Ash, which have fruit on them and in winter months birds such as Bohemian Waxwings (irruptive species) and Cedar Waxwings (nest here locally here in Ottawa) can eat this fruit
2696People also plant flowers in their gardens which attract a large number of insects and hummingbirds
2697Backyard habitats have been found to be as important as larger city greenspaces (large tracts of forest in a city)
2698Animals also benefit from our efforts to feed them such as by putting up Birdfeeders
2699Hummingbird feeders offer sugar water
2700Seed-eating birds are attracted to small seeds that are put out
2701Birds with small bills such as Sparrows and Finches like small seeds
2702Fabulous finches are furiously fond of fully-filled feeders
2703(Such as American Tree sparrow, American Goldfinches, and Common Redpoll)
2704Birds only appear at these feeders if they are in the area for natural foods (does not stop birds from migrating and northern birds do not come south to feed)
2705
2706These are supplementary forms of food (don’t
2707depend on them)
2708Bigger seeds are better for bigger billed birds
2709Suet (made from fat) attracts birds who eat fat such as from insect grubs
2710Such as Black-capped Chickadee, Downy Woodpecker,
2711Hairy Woodpecker, White-breasted Nuthatch, Blue Jay
2712Overall birdfeeders have little effect on most migratory birds.
2713Only stay if natural food crops are present
2714Are a couple species that would not be in Ottawa without bird feeders such as House Finch which were introduced to Eastern North America from Western North America
2715Birdfeeders primarily affect the distribution of Non- Migratory Seed-Eating birds such as House Finches and Northern Cardinals
2716Cardinals first nested in Canada in 1901, but did not nest in Ottawa until 1974
2717Are non-seed eating birds whose distribution is affected too. Red-bellied Woodpecker are expanding north because of birdfeeders and possibly climate changes
2718Birds in the city have mortality factors that are not present in the wild
27191.) Birds fly into windows
2720When lots of windows, migratory birds do not see the glass
2721When lights are on at night, birds get confused by the light when migrating
27222.) Disease such as Salmonellosis can spread through dense concentration of birds
2723Such as when dense populations at feeders
27243.) Increased exposure to deadly predators
2725Such as domestic cats
2726Increased exposure to certain hawks
2727Accipiters (Bird hawks) use to migrate with smaller birds but great concentration of small birds around bird feeders means many stay all winter
2728Migration pattern changed because of bird feeders, more spending winter in cities
2729Such as Cooper’s Hawk and Sharp- shinned Hawk
2730This is not good news for Hawks
2731Urban settings provide nest sites for some birds
2732
2733Including human-made ones → Bird houses (nesting boxes)
2734Used by cavity adopters
2735Such as House Wren, Eastern Bluebird, Tree Swallow
2736Apartment-style nest boxes attract Colonial Nesting
2737birds including Purple Martin
2738Do not eat mosquitoes like was advertised to sell these big nest boxes
2739House Sparrow are cavity adopters, nesting in big apartment style and smaller nest boxes
2740People also plant nut bearing trees or oaks with acorns
2741Food for Gray Squirrels found in urban centres
2742Spread north with the planting of ornamental nut- bearing trees
2743Eastern Cottontail benefit from plentiful food (shrubs, gardens), warmer climate, and fewer predators
2744Raccoons have done well. They are cavity adopters, liking attics, porches, and cavities in trees
2745Striped Skunk have also benefited
2746A predatory animal has adopted urban settings → Eastern Coyote
2747Mostly Coyote genes but look different than prairie coyotes, looking a little similar to Eastern Wolves
2748
2749
2750BIOL 2903 – Lecture 25
2751Urban habitat cont’d
2752Eastern Coyotes are now coming into urban centres
2753Threats to flora and fauna
2754Habitat change
2755Can come from a variety of different things
2756The nine leading causes of bird deaths in Canada (lowest to highest)
27579. Communication towers
27588. Commercial forestry
2759Especially Boreal Forest which is continuously have sections clear cut
2760Boreal Forest such an important breeding ground for birds, with many nests being destroyed in the process
27617. Agricultural harvesting
2762Ground nesting birds badly hurt during harvesting
27636. Agricultural pesticides
2764Not only can affect birds directly, but their food supplies as well
2765The new Neonicotinoids are making their way into waterways, killing aquatic invertebrates, including larval flying insects, which are a major food source for birds
2766Aerial foragers are declining quickly
27675. Hunting
2768Especially ducks and game birds like ruffed grouse
27694. Collisions with vehicles
2770More roads and faster roads (from improving country roads)
2771Turkey Vultures are benefiting, feeding on carcusses
27723. Collisions with buildings
2773Especially during migration through big cities where they cannot see the windows and lights confuse them
2774FLAP (Fatal Light Awareness Program) in Toronto are working to make governments and home owners aware of this problem so they turn off their lights at night
2775Safe Wings Ottawa does a similar thing
27762. Collisions with power lines
2777Including wind turbines
27781. Domestic or Farrell cats
2779All animals face Habitat loss and a major problem is Forest Fragmentation
2780Fragments don’t connect (are isolated pockets of habitat)
2781Deep forest birds, especially insect and foliage gleaners of the canopy, are especially affected
2782Eastern Wolf requires large tracks of forest
2783
2784Forest fragmentation has benefited Eastern Coyote, Deer, Wild Turkeys, brood parasitic Brown-headed Cowbird (able to cover whole fragment, reducing success of all birds in the fragment)
2785A lot of highways and roads throughout Ontario
2786More Deer and Moose having to cross high-speed highways, getting hit by cars
2787Birds flying low over roads such as Loggerhead Shrike are getting hit
2788Habitat Degradation
2789Can happen through air quality, chemicals being released in water, etc.
2790Nutrients that are used to enhance the growth of crops in fields can get into the water system and cause problems such as Eutrophication (excess growth of algae) of waterways, Botulism
2791Invasive Species
2792Such as Zebra and Quagga muscles
2793Non-native fish are a problem in some Ontario waters
2794are present in many areas but there is fear of another type of Carp, the Asian Carp, getting into the Great Lakes
2795Were introduced
2796Greatly affect food chains and are dangerous, jumping out of the water and can hurt you bad if they hit you while boating
2797Females lay millions of eggs a year, they grow quickly and once they get to a certain size there is no predator to keep them in check
2798Japanese Beetle are non-native
2799Purple Loosestrife is a non-native species that many feared would over take wetlands but now some native species feed on it showing how nature adapts
2800Dog-strangling Vine is non-native and kills plants
2801Invasive insects including Wood-boring Beetles such as Emerald Ash Borer lay eggs on Ash trees and the larvae eat the wood eventually killing the tree
2802Losing majority of Ontario’s Ash trees to these beetles
2803Ground cover called Crown Vetch grows quickly and forms dense carpets so it is used to stabilize road sides. Does kill native species, but seems to stay by roadsides
2804Wild Indigo Duskywing caterpillars feed on Crown Vetch
2805Overall non-native species are not a good thing but are in this case
2806Wind Turbines in the wrong locations are also problematic for birds and especially bats
2807Turbines on migratory routes, especially on islands where smaller animals such as bats island hop, are harmful
2808Migratory species such as Red Bat and Hoary Bat are being killed
2809White Nose Syndrome is a fungus that gets on bats while they are in a damp location, spreading, and affects those that don’t migrate by making them more restless until they leave their hibernacula in the winter
2810Wipes out whole colonies, having a frightening affect on bat populations
2811First found in North America in 2006
2812
2813In nine years spread to 28 states and 5 Canadian provinces
2814Not affecting migratory bats much
2815Climate Change
2816Northern species will likely be the most seriously affected
2817The decline of Gray Jays in western Algonquin Park has been linked to global warming (winter food caches spoiling when thawed in midwinter)
2818Wood Frogs and other freeze-tolerant frogs could also be imperilled
2819When they wake and thaw, they burn off a large amount of their body’s glycerol stores, several freeze/thaw cycles can use up all there stores and then are not able to thaw when the warm weather does stabilize
2820Some species will benefit. Southern species can expand their Northern limits (called a Northward Range Expansion) such as Red-bellied Woodpecker
2821Insects such as Giant Swallowtail are expanding northward
2822For final remember importance of water. It is the strongest force that the province currently has and has historically had