8cYdhM8z

1<section>
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4                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Plain-English-Guide-to-Cloud-Computing.png"
5                title="Must-Know Info to Crack This Content-Hungry Writing Niche"
6                alt="A Writer's Guide to Cloud Computing" width="320" height="214" class="alignright"
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16    <div class="menu-container" id="cloud-menu">
17        <div class="menu-wrapper">
18            <p>QUICK LINKS</p>
19            <div> <a href="#promise">What’s in This Post?</a><a href="#audience">Who Should Read This?</a><a
20                    href="#definition">What Is Cloud Computing?</a><a href="#key-concepts">Key Cloud Concepts</a><a
21                    href="#training">Where to Learn More</a><a href="#cybersecurity">Cybersecurity</a><a
22                    href="#big-data">Big Data</a>
23                <div class="last-item"><a style="padding-bottom: 8px;" href="#freelance-gigs">How to Find Freelance
24                        Writing Gigs</a></div>
25            </div>
26        </div>
27    </div>
28    <p><strong>Fact: </strong>Niche copywriters are in big demand.</p>
29    <p>And they get paid more.</p>
30    <p>Why?</p>
31    <p>Because most clients aren’t just looking for any writer.</p>
32    <p>They want someone who understands their industry. Someone who can hit the ground running. Someone who can save
33        them precious time and money.</p>
34    <p>In other words, a low-maintenance writer who just gets on with the job with minimal guidance and assistance.</p>
35    <p>So how do you make the move from a run-of-the-mill jack of all trades to a highly sought-after specialist
36        copywriter?</p>
37    <p>That’s how this post can help.
38        <br> <span id="more-6496"></span>
39    </p>
40    <p>Because it focuses on one of the most lucrative writing markets.</p>
41    <p>Together, we’ll be taking a writer’s journey into <strong>cloud computing</strong>.</p>
42    <p>We’ll be putting you in the shoes of a real cloud user. We’ll encounter some of the IT challenges they face and
43        how the cloud helps to overcome them. We’ll be learning practically everything a writer needs to break into this
44        highly rewarding sector.</p>
45    <p>But, before we jump in, let’s get a rundown of what we cover in this post.
46        <br>
47    </p>
48</section>
49<section id="promise">
50    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
51        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">What’s in This Post?</h2>
52    </div>
53    <p>
54        <a href="#definition"><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="cloud-basics-icon"
55                alt="Cloud Computing Icon" width="70" height="55" class="promise-image"></a><span
56            class="promise-text"><strong><a href="#definition">The Basics of Cloud Computing</a>:</strong> We’ll take
57            you through all the key cloud concepts, so you know what you’re talking about when you land your first
58            freelance client.</span>
59        <br>
60        <a href="#training"><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="learn-more-icon" alt="Learning Icon"
61                width="70" height="55" class="promise-image"></a><span class="promise-text"><strong><a
62                    href="#training">Where to Learn More</a>:</strong> Here you’ll find a number of training courses and
63            other learning resources to help develop your cloud computing knowledge.</span>
64        <br>
65        <a href="#cybersecurity"><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="cybersecurity-icon"
66                alt="Cybersecurity Icon" width="70" height="55" class="promise-image"></a><span
67            class="promise-text"><strong><a href="#cybersecurity">Cybersecurity</a>:</strong> The rapid growth of cloud
68            computing has also opened new opportunities for writers specialising in cloud security. This introduction
69            will give you a basic understanding of cybersecurity and how it differs in the cloud.</span>
70        <br>
71        <a href="#big-data"><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="big-data-icon" alt="Big Data Icon"
72                width="70" height="55" class="promise-image"></a><span class="promise-text"><strong><a
73                    href="#big-data">Big Data</a>:</strong> The cloud has been one of the key drivers behind the
74            explosion in big data analytics. But what exactly is big data? We’ll explain everything you need to know and
75            show you what makes big data different from traditional database technology.</span>
76        <br>
77        <a href="#freelance-gigs"><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="freelance-gigs-icon"
78                alt="Freelance Writing Icon" width="70" height="55" class="promise-image"></a><span
79            class="promise-text"><strong><a href="#freelance-gigs">How to Find Freelance Writing Gigs</a>:</strong> In
80            this section, you’ll get a few starting points on where to look for your first cloud computing
81            client.</span>
82    </p>
83    <blockquote>
84        <p> <img class="blog-quote" src="//writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/double-quotes.png.webp"
85                alt="Double quotes symbol"></p>
86        <p style="margin-top: 1.2em;">There’s a basic rule in freelance writing:</p>
87        <p style="margin-left: 49px;">Pay is low where there are lots of writers who can do the work, and high where
88            there are few.</p>
89        <p style="margin-left: 49px;"><strong>– Carol Tice, Make a Living Writing</strong></p>
90    </blockquote>
91</section>
92<section id="audience">
93    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
94        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">Who Should Read This?</h2>
95    </div>
96    <p>This post is aimed at writers interested in becoming a cloud content specialist.</p>
97    <p>But it’s also useful to:</p>
98    <ul class="blog">
99        <li><strong>Cloud service providers (CSPs)</strong> who need a fast-track guide for new in-house writers.</li>
100        <li><strong>Sales and marketing professionals</strong> who already work in the sector but want a deeper
101            understanding of the cloud.</li>
102        <li>Technical <strong>PR consultants</strong> with clients in the cloud industry.</li>
103        <li>Senior-level <strong>IT managers</strong> looking for a broad overview of the cloud.</li>
104        <li><strong>Developers</strong> and <strong>operators</strong> who aren’t yet familiar with the cloud model of
105            IT.</li>
106    </ul>
107</section>
108<div id="IT-terms">
109    <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="cloud-essentials-icon"
110            alt="Computer Icon" width="70" height="55" class="essentials-image">
111        <h2 class="essentials-heading">10 Essential Computing Terms</h2>
112    </div>
113    <p>To make this post accessible to readers at any level, we’ve included a list of basic IT terms that are essential
114        to your understanding of the cloud. If you’re already computer savvy, just move straight onto the next section.
115    </p>
116    <p>(You’ll also find internal links throughout this post, so you can refer back to this glossary at any time.)</p>
117    <p style="margin-bottom: 0em;"><a href="javascript:void(0)" onclick="showEssentials()" id="showLink">Show this
118            section &gt;</a><a href="javascript:void(0)" onclick="hideEssentials()" id="hideLink">Hide this section
119            &gt;</a></p>
120    <div id="essentialContent">
121        <p style="margin-top: 1.5em">The following is a quick reference list for absolute beginners in IT. Don’t worry
122            if you forget some of the terms, as we link back to them at various points throughout the post.</p>
123        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="development">1. Development</h3>
124        <p>The collective process of developing software – covering everything from specification and application design
125            to writing code (programming), testing and bug fixing.</p>
126        <p>IT people also use the term <em>development</em> to refer to the department or team that develops and
127            maintains applications.</p>
128        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="operations">2. Operations</h3>
129        <p>The people and processes involved in ensuring the smooth running of computer systems.</p>
130        <p>The role of <em>operations</em> would typically include taking backups, monitoring system performance,
131            maintaining printers, providing helpdesk support and scheduling batch jobs, such as monthly salary or
132            customer billing runs.</p>
133        <p>The term<em> operations</em> can also refer to the various internal tasks that a computer performs.</p>
134        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="server">3. Server</h3>
135        <p>A computer program that performs a specific task, providing a service to other computers or end users.</p>
136        <p>A common example is a <strong>web server</strong>. Whenever you view a web page over the Internet, your
137            browser sends a request to a web server, which responds by serving up the web page.</p>
138        <p>Often the physical computer that hosts a server program is also called a <em>server</em>.</p>
139        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="data-centre">4. On-Premises Data Centre</h3>
140        <p>A company’s own IT facilities, which include in-house servers, network infrastructure and the buildings it
141            uses to house them.</p>
142        <p>The <em>on-premises data centre</em> characterises the traditional approach to IT. This contrasts with cloud
143            computing, where you use an external cloud provider to host your applications instead of using your own
144            facilities.</p>
145        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="memory">5. Memory</h3>
146        <p>In simple terms, <em>memory</em> is a high-speed storage component of a computer designed to hold information
147            for temporary use. Data is only stored in <em>memory</em> for as long as your computer needs it to perform a
148            specific function – such as loading an application or web page in your browser.</p>
149        <p>Other terms used to refer to <em>memory</em> include <em>primary storage</em>, <em>main memory</em> and
150            <em>random-access memory (RAM)</em>.</p>
151        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="storage">6. Storage</h3>
152        <p>A secondary memory component for retaining information over long periods. Whether used or not, data
153            maintained in <em>storage</em> remains there until it’s actively deleted.</p>
154        <p>Storage media are designed to hold far more data than memory. But they come with a trade-off of slower access
155            speed.</p>
156        <p>The two main types of <em>storage</em> are the <strong>hard disk drive (HDD)</strong>, which uses traditional
157            magnetic media, and <strong>solid-state drive (SSD)</strong>, which is based on newer microchip technology.
158            SSD storage is faster but more expensive than HDD.</p>
159        <blockquote style="background: #ddd; border-left: none;">
160            <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="units-callout"
161                    class="callout-image" alt="Units of Measure Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong
162                    class="callout-heading">Units of Measure</strong></div>
163            <p>Storage and memory are generally measured in:</p>
164            <ul class="block-quote">
165                <li><strong>Gigabytes (GB)</strong>: 1GB is slightly more than the storage capacity of a compact disc
166                    (CD).</li>
167                <li><strong>Terabytes (TB): </strong>1TB = 1,024GB. This is slightly more than the storage capacity of
168                    200 DVDs.</li>
169                <li><strong>Petabytes (PB):</strong> 1PB = 1,024TB. Slightly more than the capacity needed to store
170                    2,000 years of MP3 recordings.</li>
171            </ul>
172            <p>Petabytes are generally used to refer to the storage capacity of large computer networks rather than
173                individual machines or components. </p>
174        </blockquote>
175        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="cpu">7. Central Processing Unit (CPU)</h3>
176        <p>The <em>CPU</em> is both the workhorse and intelligent component of your computer.</p>
177        <p>It executes the instructions given to it by the programs running on your machine. It performs calculations
178            and logical operations. It accepts input from devices, such as a keyboard or mouse. And it also relays
179            signals between other hardware components in your computer.</p>
180        <p>A number of factors determine the performance capability of a <em>CPU</em>. One of the most significant is
181            <strong>clock speed</strong>, which is the operating frequency or number of instruction cycles the
182            <em>CPU</em> handles each second. Clock speed is measured in megahertz (MHz).</p>
183        <blockquote style="padding-top: 2.4em; padding-bottom:1.2em; background: #ddd; border-left: none;">
184            <p style="margin: 0px; padding:0px;"><img loading="lazy"
185                    src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Desk-Analogy.png"
186                    alt="Annotated Graphic of Man Sitting at a Desk" width="165" height="142" id="desk"></p>
187            <p style="margin-bottom: 1.3em;">The best way to understand the difference between <em>memory</em>,
188                <em>storage</em> and <em>CPU</em> is to visualise a computer as yourself working at a desk.</p>
189            <p>The surface of the desk is like computer <em>memory</em>, as it’s the place where you put all the things
190                you need to perform your immediate work. The set of drawers is like computer <em>storage</em>, as you
191                use it to store items away until you need them. And you are the <em>CPU</em>, as you’re the one doing
192                the work at the desk. </p>
193        </blockquote>
194        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="cli">8. Command-Line Interface (CLI)</h3>
195        <p>A method of interacting with a computer using text-based commands.</p>
196        <p>Until the late 1980s virtually all computers used a <em>CLI</em>. But, since the arrival of macOS and
197            Windows, it has been largely superseded by the <strong id="gui">graphical user interface (GUI)</strong> –
198            the familiar desktop method by which we access our computers using icons and other visual indicators.</p>
199        <p>Nevertheless, <em>CLIs</em> are still widely used by developers. This is because they’re quicker and more
200            convenient for performing technical tasks, such as configuring your machine, working with programs and
201            managing workflows.</p>
202        <p>You can still access the <em>CLI</em> on modern home computers. Windows supports two CLI applications –
203            <strong>Windows PowerShell</strong> and the older <strong>Command Prompt</strong>. The CLI tool provided in
204            macOS is known as <strong>Bash</strong>, which you can access via the <strong>Terminal</strong> application.
205        </p>
206        <p>The following is a screenshot from a Bash terminal session on a Mac:</p>
207        <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
208                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Bash-macOS-Shell.png"
209                alt="Screenshot from a Bash Terminal Session"
210                title="A Simple Echo Command That Instructs Linux to Display Some Text on Screen" width="500"
211                height="295" class="aligncenter" ></p>
212        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="open-source">9. Open-Source Software</h3>
213        <p>Many applications are built using a type of computer code known as a <strong>compiled language</strong>.
214            Whenever a developer creates a program using one of these languages, they have to compile it before they can
215            run it. This process converts their <strong>source code</strong> into a lower-level machine language the
216            computer can understand.</p>
217        <p>Proprietary software, such as <strong>Microsoft Office</strong> and <strong>Adobe Creative Suite</strong>
218            applications, keep their source code secret and only provide you with the compiled code.</p>
219        <p>But <em>open-source software</em> is different. You can access and modify the source code, allowing you to
220            adapt the software to work the way you want.</p>
221        <p>Open-source products are typically the result of community-oriented projects, by which software is developed,
222            tested and improved through collaborative participation. This often makes them more robust and secure than
223            proprietary alternatives.</p>
224        <p>Most <em>open-source software</em> is free to use. However, some enterprise-grade products, which offer extra
225            features such as customer support and enhanced functionality, are licensed on a subscription basis.</p>
226        <h3 class="cloud-heading-3" id="linux">10. Linux</h3>
227        <p>An operating system just like Windows and macOS. It can run on pretty well any kind of hardware, including
228            PCs and Macs, and is the underlying technology behind a vast array of devices – from <strong>Android
229                phones</strong> and <strong>TVs</strong> to <strong>home appliances</strong>, <strong>web
230                servers</strong> and the world’s fastest <strong>supercomputers</strong>.</p>
231        <p><em>Linux</em> has become the platform of choice for application development because it is open source, free
232            to use and highly flexible, stable and secure.</p>
233        <p>It also comes in different versions known as <strong>distributions. </strong>Each distribution uses the same
234            core Linux operating system, but may be geared towards a particular type of hardware or different goal.</p>
235        <p>For example, <a href="https://www.ubuntu.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Ubuntu</a>
236            puts a strong emphasis on ease of use, <a href="https://www.debian.org/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Debian</a> leans towards quality control and <a href="https://getfedora.org/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Fedora</a> focuses on innovation and compatibility
237            with the latest technologies.</p>
238        <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
239                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Ubuntu-Logo.png" alt="Ubuntu Logo"
240                width="150" height="125">
241            <p class="wp-caption-text">Ubuntu is the most <a href="https://www.zdnet.com/article/ubuntu-linux-continues-to-rule-the-cloud/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">widely used Linux distribution</a> in the cloud</p>
242        </div>
243        <blockquote style="background: #ddd; border-left: none;">
244            <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="further-reading-callout"
245                    class="callout-image" alt="Learning Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong
246                    class="callout-heading">Further Reading</strong></div>
247            <p>
248                <a href="https://sourceforge.net/projects/linuxcommand/files/latest/download" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
249                        src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Linux-Command-Line-William-Shotts.png.webp"
250                        alt="Book Cover of The Linux Command Line by William Shotts" width="150" id="Shotts"></a>Do you
251                want to learn how to use the Linux command line? Or maybe just want to get a feel of how it works?
252            </p>
253            <p><em>The Linux Command Line</em> by William Shotts is a complete introduction to the CLI, taking you from
254                an absolute beginner right through to a Linux power user.</p>
255            <p>It’s more of a guided tour than a technical manual, with topics organised into digestible bite-size
256                chunks. Packed with practical examples, it’s both great fun and ridiculously easy to read.</p>
257            <p>You can purchase the book at <a href="https://nostarch.com/tlcl2" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blaapink">No Starch Press</a> or get the PDF version for FREE using this <a href="https://sourceforge.net/projects/linuxcommand/files/latest/download" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">download link</a>.*</p>
258            <p><span style="font-size: 0.8em;">* This recommendation does NOT contain affiliate links.</span></p>
259        </blockquote>
260        <p style="margin-bottom: 0em;"><a href="#IT-terms" onclick="hideEssentials()" id="showLink">Hide this section
261                &gt;</a></p>
262    </div>
263</div>
264<section id="definition">
265    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
266        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">What Is Cloud Computing?</h2>
267    </div>
268    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="difficulty-level-2" alt="2 Bars out of 7" width="150"
269            height="47" style="margin-left: 0em;">
270        <br> Cloud computing is a HUGE business.
271    </p>
272    <p>The industry is growing exponentially and offers a wealth of opportunities for tech-savvy writers and bloggers.
273    </p>
274    <p>But what exactly is the cloud?</p>
275    <p>Many people think of it in terms of file storage services, such as <strong>Dropbox</strong> or
276        <strong>iCloud</strong>.</p>
277    <p>But they’re only a tiny part of it.</p>
278    <p>These services belong to a category of applications known as <a href="#saas">Software as a Service (SaaS)</a> –
279        which represents just one layer of the cloud as a whole.</p>
280    <p>To see the bigger picture, we need to go back to the time when the cloud first started.</p>
281    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">How the Cloud Began</h3>
282    <p>Remember the dot-com revolution of the late 1990s and early 2000s?</p>
283    <p>Online shopping giant Amazon was fast becoming a global retail empire, with a rapidly expanding product
284        catalogue, customer base and network of merchant partners.</p>
285    <p>One of the biggest challenges the company faced was how to expand its server network fast enough to meet the huge
286        growth in demand.</p>
287    <p>As a result, infrastructure development became central to Amazon’s business plan. It took a new shared approach
288        to IT architecture, which helped to minimise unused server resources. And it developed a platform that could
289        scale quickly, easily and cost effectively.</p>
290    <p>Then Amazon started to realise other businesses could benefit from its new model of IT.</p>
291    <p>Companies could use the retailer’s IT infrastructure to host their own workloads. They could provision exactly
292        the resources they needed instead of purchasing or renting an entire <a href="#server"
293            onclick="showEssentials()">server</a>. And they could also scale their computing resources quickly and
294        easily to meet demand.</p>
295    <p>So, in 2006, the eCommerce giant launched <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Amazon Web Services (AWS)</a>, which initially provided online <a href="#storage"
296            onclick="showEssentials()">storage</a> but soon added more general computing services.</p>
297    <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
298            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Andy-Jassy.jpg.webp"
299            alt="Andy Jassy - CEO of AWS" width="500" height="339">
300        <p class="wp-caption-text">Andy Jassy: CEO of AWS and a key figure behind the evolution of the cloud
301            <br><span style="font-weight:normal; margin-top: 0.4em; display: block;">(Image source: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/30270298030" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Steve Jurvetson</a>)</span>
302        </p>
303    </div>
304    <p>Although the concept of the cloud had dated back to the 1960s, the launch of AWS marked an important turning
305        point, where the term <em>cloud computing</em> came into widespread use.</p>
306    <p>The difference between AWS and traditional types of server hosting wasn’t the physical hardware itself but rather
307        the way in which the service was delivered.</p>
308    <p>This new model of cloud computing was characterised by the following features:</p>
309    <ul class="blog">
310        <li><strong>Self-service:&nbsp;</strong>You can access, modify and manage your IT resources on demand without
311            involvement of the cloud service provider – either through a web-based console or the <a href="#cli"
312                onclick="showEssentials()">CLI</a>.</li>
313        <li><strong>Pay as you go (PAYG):</strong> You only pay for the resources you use and receive a monthly bill
314            based on your metered consumption.</li>
315        <li><strong>Elastic: </strong>You can scale your resources up or down quickly and easily as your needs change.
316        </li>
317    </ul>
318    <blockquote>
319        <p><strong>The Big Three Cloud Providers</strong></p>
320        <div style="margin-top:2.2em;">
321            <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img loading="lazy"
322                    src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="AWS-logo-small" class="CSP-logos" alt="AWS Logo" width="85"
323                    height="48"></a>
324            <h4 style="font-style:normal; display: inline" class="cloud-heading-4">AWS</h4>
325            <p>The first and by far the largest cloud service provider in the world. It is also the most sophisticated
326                cloud offering, with a choice of services and features to meet virtually any IT requirement.</p>
327        </div>
328        <p>The platform is strongly oriented towards the self-service concept of the cloud and has a very similar look
329            and feel to the parent company’s retail website. If you start writing about the cloud, much of your focus
330            will be on AWS.</p>
331        <div style="margin-top:2.2em;">
332            <a href="https://azure.microsoft.com/en-gb/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
333                    loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="Azure-logo-small" class="CSP-logos"
334                    alt="Microsoft Azure Logo" width="85" height="48"></a>
335            <h4 style="font-style:normal; display: inline" class="cloud-heading-4">Microsoft Azure</h4>
336            <p>The strongest challenger to Amazon’s dominance of the public cloud market. The platform offers strength
337                in depth and is a particularly good fit for businesses that already use other Microsoft technologies.
338            </p>
339        </div>
340        <p>Microsoft’s approach to service delivery reflects the company’s heritage as a traditional computing service
341            provider, generating much of its business through product bundling and an established network of sales
342            representatives.</p>
343        <div style="margin-top:2.2em;">
344            <a href="https://cloud.google.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img loading="lazy"
345                    src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="GCP-logo-small" class="CSP-logos" alt="Google Cloud Platform Logo"
346                    width="85" height="48"></a>
347            <h4 style="font-style:normal; display: inline" class="cloud-heading-4">Google Cloud Platform</h4>
348            <p>Google is a relative newcomer to the public cloud marketplace and doesn’t yet offer the same scope of
349                services as its two main competitors.</p>
350        </div>
351        <p>Nevertheless, the vendor has built up a strong customer base on its core strength of innovation. It leads the
352            way in many cutting-edge technologies, such as <a href="#big-data">big data</a>, analytics and machine
353            learning. Like Amazon, Google’s offering is highly geared towards its self-service online portal. </p>
354    </blockquote>
355    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Three Delivery Models of the Cloud</h3>
356    <p>As you learn and write more about the cloud, you’ll frequently come across the terms <em>Infrastructure as a
357            Service (IaaS)</em>, <em>Platform as a Service (PaaS)</em> and <em>Software as a Service (SaaS)</em>.</p>
358    <p>These represent the three basic categories or delivery models of cloud computing.</p>
359    <p>They’re also known as the three layers of the cloud, as each category of service sits on top of the other, as
360        follows:</p>
361    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="iaas" class="cloud-model-icon"
362            alt="Cloud with IaaS at Centre" width="95" height="54"><strong>Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS):</strong>
363        A category of cloud service, which provides you with the basic building blocks, such as servers, storage,
364        networking resources and an operating system, for building your own virtual data centre in the cloud.</p>
365    <p>All you really get is the raw ingredients for hosting your applications and that’s it. It’s down to you to
366        configure and maintain your cloud environment – just as you would if it were your own on-premises <a
367            href="#data-centre" onclick="showEssentials()">data centre</a>.</p>
368    <p>IaaS offers you the freedom to customise your infrastructure to work the way you want. This is often important
369        when you migrate existing applications to the cloud, as you may need to replicate your on-premises operating
370        environment to make sure they work.</p>
371    <p>Cloud service providers supplement their IaaS offerings with tools to manage your infrastructure. These include
372        <strong>cost-monitoring</strong>, <strong>security</strong>, <strong>storage</strong> and <strong>backup and
373            recovery</strong> services, many of which are also offered by third-party cloud partners.</p>
374    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="paas" class="cloud-model-icon"
375            alt="Cloud with PaaS at Centre" width="95" height="54"><strong>Platform as a Service (PaaS):</strong> The
376        second major layer or category of cloud service, built on top of IaaS, which provides developers with a
377        pre-configured, fully managed environment for deploying code.</p>
378    <p>PaaS speeds up the process of building applications by providing the frameworks developers need, such as a
379        <strong>database management system</strong> or <strong>web server</strong>, for deploying their software. As a
380        result, developers only need to worry about their code – without the headache of system configuration and
381        maintenance.</p>
382    <p>Some types of PaaS offering allow under-the-hood access to your underlying resources, such as the type and
383        capacity of your storage. But others are <strong>serverless</strong>, where you don’t have any involvement with
384        the underlying infrastructure.</p>
385    <p>Despite the clear advantages, deploying your applications to PaaS increases the risk of <a
386            href="#vendor-lock-in">vendor lock-in</a>. This is where you become tied to a particular platform because of
387        the difficulties involved in moving to another cloud vendor.</p>
388    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="saas" class="cloud-model-icon"
389            alt="Cloud with SaaS at Centre" width="95" height="54"><strong>Software as a Service (SaaS):</strong> The
390        layer of the cloud we’re most familiar with, encompassing a vast array of new-generation applications and
391        services, such as <strong>Dropbox</strong>, <strong>iCloud</strong>, <strong>Netflix</strong>, <strong>Microsoft
392            Office 365&nbsp;</strong>and <strong>Adobe Creative Cloud</strong>.</p>
393    <p>SaaS applications are cloud-based software built on top of either PaaS or directly on top of an IaaS environment.
394        SaaS providers manage their applications centrally and grant access to their services over the Internet on a
395        PAYG subscription basis.</p>
396    <p>SaaS applications typically use a <strong>multi-tenant design</strong>, whereby a single instance of the software
397        serves more than one customer at the same time. This contrasts with the traditional <strong>single-tenant
398            model</strong> – where you purchase your own copy of the software and install it on your machine for your
399        own exclusive use.</p>
400    <div class="desktop-only">
401        <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
402                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IaaS-vs-PaaS-vs-SaaS.png.webp"
403                alt="IaaS vs PaaS vs SaaS - Ease of Control vs Ease of Management" width="665" height="291"
404                >
405            <p class="wp-caption-text">Easier cloud management comes at the cost of freedom and control</p>
406        </div>
407    </div>
408    <div class="mobile-only">
409        <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
410                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IaaS-vs-PaaS-vs-SaaS-Mobile.png.webp"
411                alt="IaaS vs PaaS vs SaaS - Ease of Control vs Ease of Management" width="414" height="681"
412                >
413            <p class="wp-caption-text">Easier cloud management comes at the cost of freedom and control</p>
414        </div>
415    </div>
416</section>
417<section id="key-concepts">
418    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
419        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">Key Cloud Computing Concepts</h2>
420    </div>
421    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="difficulty-level-2" alt="2 Bars out of 7" width="150"
422            height="47">
423        <br> Now we’re going to dig deeper into how the cloud actually works.
424    </p>
425    <p>Let’s do this by running through some of the key cloud concepts:</p>
426    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Virtualisation</h3>
427    <p>By and large, when you develop a new application, it’s good practice to deploy it to a separate physical <a
428            href="#server" onclick="showEssentials()">server</a>.</p>
429    <p>You do this for a number of reasons.</p>
430    <p>For example, if you host all your workloads on a single server they compete for resources. So if one application
431        experiences a spike in <a href="#cpu" onclick="showEssentials()">CPU</a> or <a href="#memory"
432            onclick="showEssentials()">memory</a> consumption, it will slow down everything else running on the same
433        server.</p>
434    <p>What’s more, if one application crashes and you need to reboot your machine, all other applications go down with
435        it.</p>
436    <p>Using different servers also isolates your applications, which can help reduce the spread of malicious damage in
437        the event of a security breach.</p>
438    <p>But all this comes at a cost.</p>
439    <p>Many servers end up being underused, wasting computing resources.</p>
440    <div class="desktop-only">
441        <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
442                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Server-Sprawl.png.webp" alt="Server Sprawl"
443                width="550" height="175" >
444            <p class="wp-caption-text">A fleet of servers running at a fraction of their potential</p>
445        </div>
446    </div>
447    <div class="mobile-only mobile-width60">
448        <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
449                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Server-Sprawl-Mobile.png.webp"
450                alt="Server Sprawl" width="414" height="802">
451            <p class="wp-caption-text">A fleet of servers running at a fraction of their potential</p>
452        </div>
453    </div>
454    <p>To overcome the issue, a new technology emerged known as <em>virtualisation</em>.</p>
455    <p>This involves breaking up one larger physical machine into a number of smaller <strong>virtual machines
456        </strong>– where the underlying physical machine is known as the <em><u>host</u></em> and the virtual machines
457        known as <em><u>guests</u></em>.</p>
458    <p>Each virtual machine is an isolated operating environment with its own allocated storage, memory and <a
459            href="#cpu" onclick="showEssentials()">processing</a> capacity. It has its own operating system and works
460        just like an actual physical computer or server.</p>
461    <blockquote style="padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">
462        <p style="margin: 0px; padding:0px;"><img
463                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Mac-Windows-Virtualisation.png"
464                alt="Apple Mac with Windows Logo Displayed on Screen" title="Apple Mac running Windows" width="100"
465                class="parallels"></p>
466        <p style="margin-bottom: 1em;">The concept of <em>virtualisation</em> is familiar to many Mac owners who use
467            emulation software, such as <a href="https://www.parallels.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Parallels Desktop</a> and <a href="https://www.vmware.com/products/fusion.html" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">VMware Fusion</a>.</p>
468        <p style="margin-bottom: 2em;">These applications allow you to run Windows or <a href="#linux"
469                onclick="showEssentials()">Linux</a> as a virtual machine within your Mac without rebooting it.</p>
470    </blockquote>
471    <p><em>Virtualisation </em>also comes in other forms. For instance, <strong>storage virtualisation</strong> unifies
472        storage from completely separate physical devices into what appears to be a single storage appliance. However,
473        server virtualisation is currently the most common example of the technology.</p>
474    <h3 id="hypervisor" class="cloud-heading-3">Hypervisor</h3>
475    <p>The software that creates, runs and manages virtual machines. There are two broad categories of
476        <em>hypervisor</em>:</p>
477    <ul class="blog">
478        <li><strong>Type 1 (native/bare metal):</strong> The software runs directly on the host hardware.</li>
479        <li><strong>Type 2 (hosted):</strong> The software runs on the host operating system.</li>
480    </ul>
481    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
482            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Native-vs-Hosted-Hypervisor.png.webp"
483            alt="Diagram Highlighting the Pros and Cons of Type 1 and Type 2 Hypervisors" width="665" height="720"
484            class="aligncenter" ></p>
485    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only"> <img loading="lazy"
486            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Native-vs-Hosted-Hypervisor-Mobile.png.webp"
487            alt="Diagram Highlighting the Pros and Cons of Type 1 and Type 2 Hypervisors" width="414" height="1764"
488            class="aligncenter"></p>
489    <h3 id="instance" class="cloud-heading-3">Instance</h3>
490    <p>An<em> instance </em>is basically another name for a virtual machine. By and large, you can use the terms
491        interchangeably. However, the term <em>instance</em> is far more strongly associated with the cloud.</p>
492    <p><em>Instances</em> are one of the core services provided by public cloud vendors. They’re available in a wide
493        variety of machine types, each with different amounts of CPU and memory suited to different price points and
494        applications.</p>
495    <p>Some types of <em>instance</em> provide integrated <strong>local storage</strong>, which comes as part of the
496        machine. These specialist <em>instances</em> are targeted at applications where fast access to storage is
497        essential. However, local storage is temporary, existing only as long as the <em>instance</em> is running.</p>
498    <p>With other types of <em>instance</em>, you have to purchase external storage separately.</p>
499    <p>Cloud service providers organise their <em>instances</em> into groups of different-sized machines, which share
500        similar performance characteristics.</p>
501    <p>For example, <strong>general-purpose instances</strong> provide a balanced mix of CPU and memory. By contrast,
502        <strong>compute-optimised instances</strong> are aimed at applications that use a lot of processing power and
503        come with a higher proportion of CPU.</p>
504    <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
505            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Google-Standard-Instance-Family.jpg.webp"
506            alt="List of Standard Machine Types on Google Cloud Platform"
507            title="Each Step Up in Instance Size Offers Twice the CPU and RAM Capacity" width="665" height="546"
508            >
509        <p class="wp-caption-text">Google’s family of general-purpose instances</p>
510    </div>
511    <p>You can manually launch an <em>instance</em> in two different ways – either through your cloud provider’s online
512        portal or through their <a href="#cli" onclick="showEssentials()">command-line interface (CLI)</a>.</p>
513    <p>Once you’ve launched your machine, and it’s up and running in the cloud, you’ll need to set up a connection to
514        it.</p>
515    <p>You do this using a program on your computer known as an <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/isd/services/research-it/research-data-services/data-storage-service/storage-access-guide/what-ssh-and" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">SSH client</a>, which allows two computers to communicate with
516        each other over a secure connection.</p>
517    <p>Cloud vendors provide you with the details you need to connect to your virtual machine, which include the IP
518        address and SSH access credentials for the <em>instance</em>.</p>
519    <blockquote>
520        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="learn-more-callout"
521                class="callout-image" alt="Education Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong class="callout-heading">Learn
522                More</strong></div>
523        <p>Want to see how you launch and connect to an <em>instance</em> in practice? Then check out this YouTube
524            video, which shows you how to spin up and connect to an Ubuntu <em>instance</em> on AWS:</p>
525        <p align="center" id="instanceSpinup">
526            <iframe loading="lazy" width="500" height="281" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/hPDL9yIlZEk"
527                frameborder="0" allow="autoplay; encrypted-media" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
528        </p>
529    </blockquote>
530    <p>By default, you communicate with your <em>instances</em> via the CLI. However, it’s also possible to access a
531        virtual machine through a <a href="#gui" onclick="showEssentials()">graphical-user interface (GUI)</a> by using
532        what’s known as <strong>remote desktop client software</strong>.</p>
533    <h3 id="machine-image" class="cloud-heading-3">Machine Image</h3>
534    <p>Imagine you could buy a home computer with all the applications and settings you want already configured and good
535        to go.</p>
536    <p>Just think how much time you’d save.</p>
537    <p>You wouldn’t have to waste hours installing Microsoft Office, Adobe Acrobat Reader, Firefox, antivirus software,
538        printer drivers or whatever else you need.</p>
539    <p><em>Machine images</em> solve a very similar problem for public cloud users.</p>
540    <p>They help developers hit the ground running by allowing them to launch an instance that’s preconfigured with the
541        operating environment they need to build their applications.</p>
542    <p>Basic <em>machine images</em> simply provide the operating system – usually either a <span>Linux</span> or
543        Windows server. Some come preinstalled with a database management system. Others come with a full application
544        stack that’s available for immediate deployment – such as a ready-to-use <a href="https://vimeo.com/81625407" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">WordPress</a> installation or eCommerce platform.</p>
545    <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
546            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/AWS-Marketplace-Machine-Images.jpg.webp"
547            alt="Screenshot from the AWS Marketplace" width="665" height="461" >
548        <p class="wp-caption-text">A selection of ready-to-use CMS machine images on the AWS Marketplace</p>
549    </div>
550    <p>In simple terms, a <em>machine image</em> is a snapshot or static copy of a virtual machine, which you can use as
551        a template for creating new live instances.</p>
552    <p>You can create snapshots of your own instances and use them as <em>machine images</em>. You can then use them to
553        replicate the same operational setup over and over again.</p>
554    <p>This can play a particularly useful role in system backups. Because if your instance fails you can replace it
555        with a new one based on the same <em>machine image</em>.</p>
556    <h3 id="microservices" class="cloud-heading-3">Microservices</h3>
557    <p>A new <span id="distributed-computing">distributed</span> approach to application design that’s particularly well
558        suited to the cloud.</p>
559    <p>Whereas traditional applications run on a single system, modern cloud applications are broken up into a series of
560        smaller tasks known as <em>microservices</em>, each deployed to their own virtual machine.</p>
561    <blockquote>
562        <p><strong>Containers</strong></p>
563        <p>It’s also possible to deploy <em>microservices</em> to even smaller server environments known as containers.
564            Containers are an emerging technology that use an alternative virtualisation approach to virtual machines.
565        </p>
566    </blockquote>
567    <p>You can tailor each virtual machine to the resource consumption of the specific <em>microservice</em>. For
568        example, one task may consume a lot of memory, requiring a large memory-optimised instance. Another may have
569        only modest resource overhead, requiring only a small general-purpose machine.</p>
570    <p>You can also allocate the same <em>microservice</em> to more than one virtual machine and use a device known as a
571        <strong>load balancer</strong> to distribute requests across your group of target instances.</p>
572    <p>This speeds up your application by allowing it to serve more than one user at the same time. It also improves the
573        resiliency of your application, as it can continue to serve requests if one of your <em>microservices</em> fails
574        and needs a server reboot.</p>
575    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
576            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Load-Balancing-Microservices.png.webp"
577            alt="A Load Balancer Distributing Requests to Cloud Microservices" width="400" height="430"
578             class="aligncenter"></p>
579    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Vertical Scaling</h3>
580    <p>Remember how we said you could scale your cloud resources quickly and easily as your requirements change?</p>
581    <p>Well, you can do this in two different ways – either vertically or horizontally.</p>
582    <p><em>Vertical scaling</em> means moving your workloads to larger or smaller virtual machines. This tends to be a
583        more expensive scaling approach, as you’re tied to your cloud vendor’s fixed set of machine sizes. As a result,
584        you often have to switch to a much larger machine just to accommodate a modest additional load.</p>
585    <p>What’s more, you can only scale up to the largest instance size available, which isn’t much use if you have
586        applications that handle particularly large workloads.</p>
587    <p>Nevertheless, <em>vertical scaling</em> is the only viable option for many older applications that were designed
588        to run on a single machine.</p>
589    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Horizontal Scaling</h3>
590    <p>A method of scaling your infrastructure by adding or removing machines.</p>
591    <p><em>Horizontal scaling</em> lends itself particularly well to modern distributed applications made up of smaller
592        <a href="#microservices">microservices</a> deployed to separate virtual machines.</p>
593    <p>It is generally more cost-efficient than vertical scaling, as you can host your application on a network of
594        smaller instances and scale in or out by much smaller increments. This gives you finer control over your
595        resources and helps reduce your expenditure on unnecessary infrastructure.</p>
596    <p>Most cloud vendors support <strong>auto scaling</strong> – a horizontal scaling feature, which automatically
597        increases or decreases the number of instances in your cluster as the load on your application changes.</p>
598    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
599            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Vertical-vs-Horizontal-Scaling.png.webp"
600            alt="Difference between Vertical and Horizontal Scaling" width="500" height="399"
601             class="aligncenter"></p>
602    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width60"> <img loading="lazy"
603            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Vertical-vs-Horizontal-Scaling-Mobile.png.webp"
604            alt="Difference between Vertical and Horizontal Scaling" width="414" height="2512"
605             class="aligncenter"></p>
606</section>
607<section>
608    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
609        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">Advantages of the Cloud</h2>
610    </div>
611    <p>OK, we now understand the basics of cloud computing.</p>
612    <p>But why exactly is it so popular?</p>
613    <p>Let’s check out the main advantages it has to offer:</p>
614    <div class="advantages-section">
615        <table style="font-size: 110%; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; padding-bottom: 0em;">
616            <tbody>
617                <tr>
618                    <td class="bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="plus-sign"
619                            alt="Green Plus Sign" width="27" height="27"></td>
620                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
621                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Lower Barrier to Entry</h3>
622                        <p>You don’t have to invest in expensive hardware to host your applications. So the financial
623                            risk of starting new IT projects is much lower. This makes the cloud particularly appealing
624                            to business start-ups and also helps drive innovation.</p>
625                    </td>
626                </tr>
627                <tr>
628                    <td class="bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="plus-sign"
629                            alt="Green Plus Sign" width="27" height="27"></td>
630                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
631                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Faster Development</h3>
632                        <p>It can take weeks or months to procure new on-premises hardware. But you can provision cloud
633                            infrastructure at the click of a button.</p>
634                        <p>Moreover, the cloud has spawned a large ecosystem of new software development technologies.
635                            These are helping companies to build applications more quickly and efficiently, giving them
636                            a competitive edge over traditional IT users.</p>
637                    </td>
638                </tr>
639                <tr>
640                    <td class="bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="plus-sign"
641                            alt="Green Plus Sign" width="27" height="27"></td>
642                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
643                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Reduced Running Cost</h3>
644                        <p>When you purchase an on-premises server, you have to make provision for spikes in demand and
645                            future growth. So you typically end up buying hardware with far greater capacity than you
646                            generally need.</p>
647                        <p>But, with the cloud, you just pay for what you need at any given time and only purchase extra
648                            capacity for temporary peaks in demand. This makes it a more efficient way to consume IT.
649                        </p>
650                    </td>
651                </tr>
652                <tr>
653                    <td class="bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="plus-sign"
654                            alt="Green Plus Sign" width="27" height="27"></td>
655                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
656                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">High Availability and Reliability</h3>
657                        <p>If a centipede loses a leg, it still has plenty more to fall back on.</p>
658                        <p>Public cloud platforms work in a similar way. They use highly resilient distributed designs
659                            to ensure that, when a server goes down, their services continue to operate normally.</p>
660                        <p>By contrast, on-premises systems typically share the load between far fewer physical
661                            machines. This makes them more vulnerable to failure and lengthy downtime.</p>
662                        <p>What’s more, unlike traditional computer programs, you can roll out software updates and
663                            patches to a distributed cloud application without shutting it down completely.</p>
664                    </td>
665                </tr>
666                <tr>
667                    <td class="bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="plus-sign"
668                            alt="Green Plus Sign" width="27" height="27"></td>
669                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
670                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Better Security</h3>
671                        <p>The leading cloud vendors have a wealth of security expertise at their disposal – far more
672                            than most companies can ever hope to provide in-house.</p>
673                        <p>That means they can offer more advanced protection than traditional IT environments through
674                            robust frameworks for securing your infrastructure.</p>
675                    </td>
676                </tr>
677            </tbody>
678        </table>
679    </div>
680    <div class="heading2-wrapper" style="margin-top: 1.25em;">
681        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">Disadvantages of the Cloud</h2>
682    </div>
683    <p>For all the benefits of cloud computing, it still comes with a few drawbacks:</p>
684    <div class="disadvantages-section">
685        <table style="font-size: 110%; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; padding-bottom: 0em;">
686            <tbody>
687                <tr>
688                    <td class="bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="minus-sign"
689                            alt="Red Minus Sign" width="27" height="27"></td>
690                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
691                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Complex Management</h3>
692                        <p>In a traditional on-premises data centre you only have to manage a relatively small number of
693                            servers.</p>
694                        <p>But cloud infrastructure is altogether different.</p>
695                        <p>It is a complex and dynamic IT environment, where users are continually spinning up, scaling
696                            and closing down instances as well as accessing other services, such as storage, load
697                            balancing and databases.</p>
698                        <p>They can easily rack up unnecessary costs by forgetting to shut down unused resources or
699                            provisioning far more infrastructure than they actually need. Operations and security teams
700                            can overlook the warning signs of a possible malicious attack. And failed backups can go
701                            unnoticed.</p>
702                        <p>To maintain visibility over the complex array of moving parts, many cloud users have to
703                            invest in sophisticated monitoring tools to keep a lid on costs, manage system performance
704                            and protect their data.</p>
705                    </td>
706                </tr>
707                <tr>
708                    <td class="bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="minus-sign"
709                            alt="Red Minus Sign" width="27" height="27"></td>
710                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
711                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Slow Performance</h3>
712                        <p>A fast and reliable network connection is essential to the optimal performance of cloud-based
713                            applications – something the public Internet cannot guarantee.</p>
714                        <p>To overcome the problem, some customers use a <a href="https://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/tip/Boost-public-cloud-reliability-through-direct-connections" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">dedicated network connection</a>. This
715                            provides a faster, more reliable and more secure connection directly between their cloud and
716                            on-premises data centre.</p>
717                        <p>However, a dedicated network is far too expensive for most small-scale cloud operations and
718                            can only improve the performance of applications that rely on internal network traffic.</p>
719                        <p>Another reason for slow cloud performance is poor application design. This often happens when
720                            companies migrate their on-premises applications directly to the cloud without adapting them
721                            to suit their new operating environment.</p>
722                    </td>
723                </tr>
724                <tr>
725                    <td class="bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="minus-sign"
726                            alt="Red Minus Sign" width="27" height="27"></td>
727                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
728                        <h3 id="vendor-lock-in" class="bullet-heading-3">Vendor Lock-In</h3>
729                        <p>Each cloud platform has its own specific protocols and technologies, which often make it
730                            difficult to switch to another provider.</p>
731                        <p>Not only that, but they also charge for transferring data out of their clouds. So customers
732                            may still feel tied to the same vendor, even in cases where switching is relatively simple.
733                        </p>
734                    </td>
735                </tr>
736            </tbody>
737        </table>
738    </div>
739</section>
740<section>
741    <div class="heading2-wrapper" style="margin-top: 1.25em;">
742        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">More Cloud Essentials</h2>
743    </div>
744    <p style="margin-bottom:0em;"><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="difficulty-level-3"
745            alt="3 Bars out of 7" width="150" height="47" style="margin-left: 0em;"></p>
746    <p style="margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0.6em;">Let’s finish our introduction to the cloud by exploring a few more
747        important concepts.</p>
748    <p><a href="#training">Skip this section &gt;</a></p>
749    <h3 id="failover" class="cloud-heading-3">Failover</h3>
750    <p><em>Failover</em> is an operational backup measure that can help keep your systems running in the event of a
751        cloud service outage.</p>
752    <p>Although the leading cloud providers maintain levels of service availability few in-house IT departments can
753        match, <a href="https://searchdisasterrecovery.techtarget.com/definition/cloud-outage" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">service interruptions</a> can and do still happen.</p>
754    <p>So, to maintain business continuity, mission-critical applications such as banking systems and large online
755        retail stores use failover mechanisms that switch to a secondary standby cloud environment if their primary
756        infrastructure fails.</p>
757    <p>Different applications use different types of failover architecture depending on:</p>
758    <ul class="blog">
759        <li><strong>Cost:</strong> A highly resilient and complex failover architecture is generally more expensive than
760            a basic standby system.</li>
761        <li><strong>Downtime:</strong> Some use cases will require 100% availability whereas others can tolerate a small
762            amount of downtime to allow for recovery.</li>
763        <li><strong>Performance:</strong> The secondary environment may have to meet the same level of performance as
764            the primary system. Alternatively, it may be able to tolerate lower performance, as long as the application
765            remains fully functional.</li>
766    </ul>
767    <p>Cloud vendors provide the means for <em>failover</em> through globally distributed networks of
768        <strong>regions</strong> and <strong>availability zones</strong>.</p>
769    <p>Regions are geographical groupings of data centres based in different physical locations across the world.</p>
770    <div class="wp-caption aligncenter">
771        <a href="https://cloud.google.com/about/locations/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
772                loading="lazy" src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Google-Cloud-Regions.png"
773                alt="Map of Google's Network of Cloud Regions across the World"
774                title="Click to Learn More about Google's Network of Cloud Locations" width="550" height="310"
775                ></a>
776        <p class="wp-caption-text">Google’s network of cloud regions</p>
777    </div>
778    <p>Each region is made up of several physically separate data-centre locations known as <strong>zones</strong> or
779        <strong>availability zones</strong>.</p>
780    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
781            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Regions-vs-Availability-Zones.png.webp"
782            alt="Diagram Showing Two Cloud Regions, Comprising Two and Three Availability Zones Respectively"
783            width="550" height="340"  class="aligncenter"></p>
784    <p>Cross-region <em>failover</em>, where you replicate an application across two different regions, provides a
785        higher level of fault tolerance and stability than replication across two availability zones in the same region.
786    </p>
787    <p>However, it is more expensive. This is down to the cost of data transfer, which is generally higher between
788        regions than between availability zones within a region.</p>
789    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
790            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Simple-Failover-Architecture.png.webp"
791            alt="Behaviour of a Simple Failover System under Normal Operation and during an Outage" width="665"
792            height="504"  class="aligncenter"></p>
793    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only"> <img loading="lazy"
794            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Simple-Failover-Architecture-Mobile.png"
795            alt="Behaviour of a Simple Failover System under Normal Operation and during an Outage" width="414"
796            height="995"  class="aligncenter"></p>
797    <h3 id="DevOps" class="cloud-heading-3">DevOps</h3>
798    <p><em>DevOps</em> is a concept that’s pretty hard to grasp at first. But, basically, it’s a new approach to IT that
799        brings <a href="#operations" onclick="showEssentials()">operations</a> and <a href="#development"
800            onclick="showEssentials()">development</a> more closely together towards a common goal.</p>
801    <p>The role of operations is to keep IT systems running smoothly. The role of development is to push out new
802        software, introducing new services and features as quickly as possible.</p>
803    <p>But new software releases can be an operational headache, as they potentially undermine the stability and
804        security of live computer systems. At the same time, development teams often feel innovation is being stifled by
805        operations.</p>
806    <p><em>DevOps</em> sets out to resolve the conflicting aims and objectives of the two IT functions – through a
807        shared purpose of faster software development and improved application performance, security and reliability.
808    </p>
809    <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
810            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/DevOps.png"
811            alt="Venn Diagram with DevOps at the Intersection of Development and Operations" width="300" height="181"
812            >
813        <p class="wp-caption-text">DevOps is a shared approach to application development and IT operations</p>
814    </div>
815    <p>The cloud and <em>DevOps </em>have a strong natural relationship with one another. This is because the
816        architecture of cloud-based applications (the domain of development) is so closely intertwined with the
817        underlying infrastructure (the domain of operations).</p>
818    <p>Cloud vendors provide access to a wide range of tools to support <em>DevOps</em> practices. These come under a
819        variety of different categories, which include:</p>
820    <div class="devops-categories">
821        <table style="font-size: 108%; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; padding-bottom: 0em;">
822            <tbody>
823                <tr>
824                    <td class="devops-icon"> <img src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="devops-collaboration"
825                            alt="Collaboration Icon"></td>
826                    <td class="devops-text">
827                        <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Collaboration</h4>
828                        <p>Solutions that facilitate communication, teamwork and project management in the planning,
829                            design, coding, testing and deployment process.</p>
830                    </td>
831                </tr>
832                <tr>
833                    <td class="devops-icon"> <img src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="devops-ci"
834                            alt="Continuous Integration Icon"></td>
835                    <td class="devops-text">
836                        <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Continuous Integration (CI)</h4>
837                        <p>Code integration systems where developers working on the same project can merge their code
838                            changes into a central repository for regular testing.</p>
839                        <p>This makes it quicker and easier to identify bugs and coding conflicts, which become
840                            increasingly more difficult to resolve when coders work for longer periods in isolation.</p>
841                    </td>
842                </tr>
843                <tr>
844                    <td class="devops-icon"> <img src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="devops-cd"
845                            alt="Continuous Delivery Icon"></td>
846                    <td class="devops-text">
847                        <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Continuous Delivery (CD)</h4>
848                        <p>Automated software release systems that reduce the manual work involved in deploying new code
849                            to testing and live environments.</p>
850                    </td>
851                </tr>
852                <tr>
853                    <td class="devops-icon"> <img src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="devops-IAC"
854                            alt="Infrastructure as Code (IAC) Icon"></td>
855                    <td class="devops-text">
856                        <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Infrastructure as Code (IaC)</h4>
857                        <p>Automated procedures that use templates for provisioning and managing infrastructure.</p>
858                        <p>You can use IaC tools to configure <a href="#machine-image">machine images</a> and
859                            automatically roll out patches, updates and configuration changes to your servers.</p>
860                        <p>IaC tools help you provision and configure application environments more quickly, reliably
861                            and consistently than performing the same tasks manually.</p>
862                    </td>
863                </tr>
864                <tr>
865                    <td class="devops-icon"> <img src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="devops-monitoring"
866                            alt="Continuous Monitoring Icon"></td>
867                    <td class="devops-text">
868                        <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Continuous Monitoring</h4>
869                        <p style="margin-bottom:0.4em;">Products that help you quickly identify infrastructure and
870                            application issues that could impact the performance, security or stability of your IT
871                            systems.</p>
872                    </td>
873                </tr>
874            </tbody>
875        </table>
876    </div>
877    <h3 id="private-cloud" class="cloud-heading-3">Private Cloud</h3>
878    <p>An <span>on-premises data-centre</span> environment in which shared pools of resources are virtualised in much
879        the same way as the public cloud.</p>
880    <p>A <em>private cloud</em> offers similar benefits to the public cloud, such as self-service provisioning, ease of
881        scaling, higher levels of automation and more efficient use of hardware.</p>
882    <p>An organisation will typically use a private instead of public cloud to:</p>
883    <ul class="blog">
884        <li>Meet specific security requirements</li>
885        <li>Comply with data privacy standards</li>
886        <li>Maintain direct control over all its infrastructure</li>
887    </ul>
888    <p>However, building a <em>private cloud</em> is no easy challenge. So uptake is still relatively low compared with
889        public cloud adoption.</p>
890    <h3 id="hybrid-cloud" class="cloud-heading-3">Hybrid Cloud</h3>
891    <p>An integrated environment of public cloud, private cloud and other on-premises infrastructure.</p>
892    <p><em>Hybrid cloud</em> gives you the best of both worlds by offering more freedom to host applications based on
893        cost, capacity, performance and regulatory requirements.</p>
894    <p>For example, workloads that handle sensitive data may be better suited to your on-premises data centre. By
895        contrast, an application with global reach would be a good fit for the public cloud.</p>
896    <p>But one thing you should bear in mind.</p>
897    <p><em>Hybrid cloud</em> isn’t simply a collective term for both public and private cloud environments. It implies
898        some kind of orchestration or workload portability between them.</p>
899    <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
900            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Hybrid-Cloud.png"
901            alt="Diagram of a Hybrid Cloud Containing a Private Cloud and Three Public Clouds" width="410" height="252"
902            >
903        <p class="wp-caption-text">A hybrid cloud made up of more than one public cloud platform</p>
904    </div>
905    <p>Common use cases for <em>hybrid cloud</em> include:</p>
906    <ul class="blog">
907        <li><strong>Cloud bursting:</strong> A method by which you offload some of your on-premises workload to the
908            public cloud during peaks in demand.</li>
909        <li><strong>Failover:</strong> An application architecture that uses private and public cloud as your primary
910            and secondary environments respectively.</li>
911        <li><strong>Data storage:</strong> A deployment where on-premises applications use cloud-based storage, which is
912            easy to access from any company location in the world.</li>
913    </ul>
914    <p><em>Hybrid cloud</em> is often the stepping stone to wider public cloud adoption, providing a stopgap solution as
915        companies gradually modernise their outdated systems.</p>
916    <h3 id="multi-cloud" class="cloud-heading-3">Multi-Cloud</h3>
917    <p>A wider umbrella term to describe two or more clouds that come under the same centralised management. A
918        <em>multi-cloud</em> can be:</p>
919    <ul class="blog">
920        <li><strong>Two or more public clouds:</strong> Without a <em><u>private</u></em> cloud.</li>
921        <li><strong>A hybrid cloud:</strong> A <em><u>private</u></em> cloud and one or more <em><u>public</u></em>
922            clouds.</li>
923    </ul>
924    <p>In other words, by definition, a hybrid cloud is also a <em>multi-cloud</em>.</p>
925    <p>Like the hybrid model, the constituents of a <em>multi-cloud</em> may be integrated in some way. However, they
926        don’t necessarily have to be.</p>
927    <p>A multi-cloud environment helps you avoid the risk of putting all your IT eggs in one basket.</p>
928    <p>You’re not reliant on a single cloud vendor. You can enhance protection against downtime by using different cloud
929        providers in your <span id="failover">failover</span> architecture. You can host each workload on the platform
930        that’s best suited to your applications. And you can take advantage of the different pricing packages on offer.
931    </p>
932    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
933            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Public-vs-Private-vs-Hybrid-vs-Multi-Cloud.png.webp"
934            alt="Side-by-Side Comparison of the Four Types of Cloud" width="575" height="273"
935             class="aligncenter"></p>
936    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only"> <img loading="lazy"
937            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Public-vs-Private-vs-Hybrid-vs-Multi-Cloud-Mobile.png.webp"
938            alt="Side-by-Side Comparison of the Four Types of Cloud" width="414" height="627"
939             class="aligncenter"></p>
940    <h3 id="api" class="cloud-heading-3">Application Programming Interface (API)</h3>
941    <p>The means by which an application allows other programs to access selected parts of its internal functionality.
942    </p>
943    <p>An <em>API</em> is made up of two parts:</p>
944    <ul class="blog">
945        <li><strong>Specification:</strong> A list of commands, known as <em>functions</em>, which developers can use to
946            serve requests from other programs. Requests instruct the application to perform an action, such as
947            retrieving, changing, adding or deleting data. An instance of a request is known as an <em>API call</em>,
948            which must be in a format that conforms to the specification.</li>
949        <li><strong>Interface:</strong> The actual software that executes API calls in line with the specification.</li>
950    </ul>
951    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/API.png"
952            alt="An API Acting as a Central Plug-In Point for External Applications" width="300" height="151"
953             class="aligncenter"></p>
954    <p><em>APIs</em> play a key role in the modern digital world by providing a way for different applications to talk
955        to one another.</p>
956    <p>For example, leading Internet players, such as <strong>Google,</strong> <strong>Facebook</strong> and
957        <strong>Twitter</strong>, publish <em>APIs</em> so third-party developers can build applications and
958        integrations that plug into their websites.</p>
959    <p><em>APIs</em> are also a core component of the public cloud, allowing users to manage their cloud infrastructure
960        programmatically through API calls from within their applications.</p>
961    <blockquote>
962        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="api-callout"
963                class="callout-image" alt="Key Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong class="callout-heading">API
964                Key</strong></div>
965        <p>An API key is a&nbsp;form of secret token&nbsp;that some <em>APIs</em> use to authenticate requests. Their
966            main purpose is to help prevent unauthorised users from gaining access and making changes to your data.</p>
967    </blockquote>
968</section>
969<section id="training">
970    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
971        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">Where to Learn More</h2>
972    </div>
973    <p><a href="#cybersecurity">Skip this section &gt;</a></p>
974    <p>So where do you learn more about cloud computing?</p>
975    <p>Well that depends:</p>
976    <ul class="blog">
977        <li><strong>If you’re still a relative newcomer: </strong>A formal training course will be the quickest and
978            easiest way to learn.</li>
979        <li><strong>If you’re already clued up on IT:</strong> You can go ahead and seek out your first writing
980            assignment right now. Simply go where each project takes you, building up your cloud knowledge as you do so.
981        </li>
982    </ul>
983    <p>In this section, we’ve compiled a list of learning resources for each of the two options.</p>
984    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Training</h3>
985    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4">Cloud Service Providers</h4>
986    <p>Each cloud vendor offers both free online training and paid instructor-led courses, catering for all levels of
987        expertise. Although beginner courses don’t require previous knowledge of the cloud, you’re generally expected to
988        have some understanding of basic IT concepts.</p>
989    <p>Some courses prepare you for certification exams. However, these are almost exclusively for cloud practitioners
990        in technical roles.</p>
991    <h5 class="cloud-heading-5">AWS</h5>
992    <p>
993        <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/training/course-descriptions/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="AWS-logo" class="training-logos"
994                alt="AWS Logo" width="150" height="73"></a>The AWS <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/training/course-descriptions/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">training portal</a> contains a large library of free digital learning courses in five
995        different languages. These are generally AWS-oriented with relatively few aimed at non-technical cloud
996        professionals.
997    </p>
998    <p>To access content, you’ll need to sign in with a standard Amazon shopping account or, where applicable, an APN
999        Partner account. These are distinctly separate from AWS accounts you use to access cloud services and the two
1000        different types of account aren’t linked in any way.</p>
1001    <h5 class="cloud-heading-5">Microsoft Azure</h5>
1002    <p>
1003        <a href="https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/learn/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
1004                loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="Azure-logo" class="training-logos"
1005                alt="Microsoft Azure Logo" width="150" height="45"></a>Microsoft’s <a href="https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/learn/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">learning zone</a>
1006        is well stocked with free online training resources in a wide variety of languages.
1007    </p>
1008    <p>Again, the vast majority of courses are specifically about Microsoft’s own cloud services. But you can also find
1009        several <a href="https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/learn/browse/?products=azure&amp;roles=business-user" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">modules</a> on broader topics geared towards business users,
1010        writers, marketers and beginners.</p>
1011    <h5 class="cloud-heading-5">Google Cloud Platform</h5>
1012    <p>
1013        <a href="https://cloud.google.com/training/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
1014                loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="GCP-logo" class="training-logos"
1015                alt="Google Cloud Platform Logo" width="150" height="59"></a>As with the other two leading cloud
1016        providers, most of the courses available through Google’s <a href="https://cloud.google.com/training/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">online training portal</a> are technically oriented.
1017    </p>
1018    <p>In addition to on-demand and instructor-led courses, it offers free <a href="https://cloud.google.com/training/free-labs/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">hands-on labs</a>. These give you guided tours of the platform, with step-by-step
1019        instructions to popular services and real-world use cases.</p>
1020    <p>To take a lab, you’ll need to create an account or sign in with your existing Google login details.</p>
1021    <blockquote>
1022        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="summits-callout"
1023                class="callout-image" alt="Calendar Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong id="cloud-summits"
1024                class="callout-heading">Cloud Summits</strong></div>
1025        <p>Many leading players in the cloud computing business host regular conferences and events in major cities
1026            throughout the world. They’re a great opportunity to learn about the cloud, stay up to date with the latest
1027            technological developments and make new industry connections.</p>
1028        <p>Tickets generally don’t come cheap. However, <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/events/summits/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">AWS Summits</a> are free to attend, take place in a wide
1029            choice of venues and offer a glut of talks, workshops and other learning activities.</p>
1030    </blockquote>
1031    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4" id="independent-training">Independent Training Providers</h4>
1032    <p>One key advantage of vendor-neutral providers is that training material doesn’t just focus on one specific cloud
1033        platform – which means you can learn about all aspects of the cloud from a single place.</p>
1034    <p>However, no two training providers are the same. So it’s down to you to decide which suits you best.</p>
1035    <p>The following are three very different examples:</p>
1036    <h5 class="cloud-heading-5">Cloud Academy</h5>
1037    <p>
1038        <a href="https://cloudacademy.com/" id="trackAcademy" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
1039                loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="Cloud-Academy-logo" class="training-logos"
1040                alt="Cloud Academy Logo" width="150" height="134"></a><a href="https://cloudacademy.com/" id="trackAcademy" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Cloud Academy</a> is a highly sophisticated
1041        learning platform with a large catalogue of training resources covering all three main public cloud providers.
1042        It also offers a range of courses in complementary technologies, such as <a href="#DevOps">DevOps</a>, machine
1043        learning and <a href="#big-data">big data</a>.
1044    </p>
1045    <p>Cloud Academy caters mainly for business customers, who can customise learning paths to specific job roles and
1046        their company’s individual training needs. However, it also offers <a href="https://cloudacademy.com/personal-trial/" id="trackAcademy" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">personal plans</a> for individuals.</p>
1047    <p>One of the key features of the platform is the wide range of hands-on labs, which give you practical experience
1048        of real-world cloud environments without having to set up an AWS, Azure or Google Cloud Platform account.</p>
1049    <p>Some of the material is also available as on-demand video, which you can watch on any device anywhere in the
1050        world.</p>
1051    <p>Pricing is based on a subscription model, where members get full access to all content on the platform.</p>
1052    <h5 class="cloud-heading-5">A Cloud Guru</h5>
1053    <p>
1054        <a href="https://acloud.guru/" id="trackGuru" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
1055                loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="Cloud-Guru-logo" class="training-logos"
1056                alt="A Cloud Guru Logo" width="150" height="98"></a><a href="https://acloud.guru/" id="trackGuru" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">A Cloud Guru</a> is a more basic training portal, where each
1057        course is a series of easily-digestible streaming video lessons.
1058    </p>
1059    <p>A large proportion of the material currently focuses on AWS. But the company also offers a limited number of
1060        courses on Azure and Google Cloud Platform, as well as a range of other cloud technologies.</p>
1061    <p>The whole look and feel of A Cloud Guru is very youthful and informal. This won’t be to everyone’s taste. What’s
1062        more, the content is less detailed than other leading offerings. However, more importantly, it is easy to follow
1063        and to the point.</p>
1064    <p>A Cloud Guru caters for both individuals and business customers. You can purchase each course individually or pay
1065        a subscription to get unlimited access to the course catalogue.</p>
1066    <h5 class="cloud-heading-5">QA</h5>
1067    <p>
1068        <a href="https://www.qa.com/" id="trackQA" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
1069                loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="QA-logo" class="training-logos" alt="QA Learning Logo"
1070                width="150" height="76"></a><a href="https://www.qa.com/" id="trackQA" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">QA</a> is a far more established training provider, offering both onsite training and more
1071        affordable online courses.
1072    </p>
1073    <p>The company caters particularly well for groups and those who learn better in an interactive classroom
1074        environment. It has learning centres across the UK, but can deliver onsite training to enterprise customers
1075        overseas. You can also join a live classroom via web conferencing from anywhere in the world.</p>
1076    <p>In addition, the company offers self-paced learning courses, which you can access anytime from any device. These
1077        use interactive software designed for individual learning.</p>
1078    <p>QA has a much wider choice of training across the full IT spectrum. So it’s your best bet if you need to
1079        supplement your cloud knowledge with skills such as coding and database query languages.</p>
1080    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Other Learning Resources</h3>
1081    <p>Once you start writing about the cloud, you’ll find much of the information you need on the documentation pages
1082        of the leading cloud vendors. But you’ll often find no shortage of information elsewhere.</p>
1083    <p>The following are likely to be your most useful resources:</p>
1084    <div class="resources-section" id="resources-section-1">
1085        <div class="resource-light">
1086            <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Reference Websites</h4>
1087            <p>The cloud computer industry has more than its fair share of technical terms and jargon. However, online
1088                IT reference sites<strong>, </strong>such as <a href="https://whatis.techtarget.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">WhatIs.com</a> and <a href="https://www.techopedia.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Techopedia</a>, provide clear explanations to most of the
1089                terms you’re likely to encounter.</p>
1090            <p style="margin-bottom:0.25em;">You’ll also find useful information on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Wikipedia</a> from time to time – although
1091                entries can be unnecessarily academic, pedantic and difficult to understand.</p>
1092        </div>
1093        <div class="resource-dark">
1094            <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Online Magazines</h4>
1095            <p>Technology publications, such as <a href="https://www.computerweekly.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Computer Weekly</a>, <a href="https://www.infoworld.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">InfoWorld</a> and <a href="https://www.cio.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">CIO</a>, offer high-level analysis of IT trends and issues.</p>
1096            <p>They’re a useful source of background information for content targeted at senior IT management level.</p>
1097            <p style="margin-bottom:0.25em;">They’re also the place to find quotes for inclusion in white papers, as
1098                they accept guest contributions from leading authorities in the cloud computing industry.</p>
1099        </div>
1100    </div>
1101    <div class="resources-section" id="resources-section-2">
1102        <div class="resource-dark">
1103            <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Q&amp;A Communities</h4>
1104            <p>By contrast with magazine-style websites, online forums, such as <a href="https://www.quora.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Quora</a>, <a href="https://stackexchange.com/sites#technology" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Stack
1105                    Exchange</a> and <a href="https://www.reddit.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Reddit</a>, tend to focus on issues at ground level.</p>
1106            <p>Discussions can often provide information you cannot get anywhere else, as questions regularly come from
1107                everyday IT users about the practicalities of using the cloud.</p>
1108            <p style="margin-bottom:0.25em;">You’ll also find a large number of questions from cloud beginners looking
1109                for someone to shed light on confusion about a specific technology.</p>
1110        </div>
1111        <div class="resource-light">
1112            <h4 class="bullet-heading-4">Free Online Books</h4>
1113            <p>eBook search engines, such as <a href="https://freecomputerbooks.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">FreeComputerBooks.com</a> and <a href="https://www.freetechbooks.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">FreeTechBooks</a>, list a huge number of free IT books,
1114                which you can download for free from the author’s or publisher’s website.</p>
1115            <p>You may have to dig quite deep to find the book you want, as neither website currently lists cloud
1116                computing as a main category on its home page.</p>
1117            <p style="margin-bottom:0.25em;">Where possible, look for the most up-to-date books, as IT is a rapidly
1118                evolving industry – especially so in the field of cloud computing.</p>
1119        </div>
1120    </div>
1121</section>
1122<section id="cybersecurity">
1123    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
1124        <h2 id="cybersecurity" class="cloud-heading-2">Cybersecurity</h2>
1125    </div>
1126    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="difficulty-level-4" alt="4 Bars out of 7" width="150"
1127            height="47" style="margin-left: 0em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">
1128        <br> <a href="#big-data">Skip this section &gt;</a>
1129    </p>
1130    <p>Technology is everywhere. And we’re using more and more of it.</p>
1131    <p>But more technology also means more opportunities for cybercriminals.</p>
1132    <p>As a result, the growth of cybercrime has been relentless. And it’s now <a href="https://www.mcafee.com/enterprise/en-us/solutions/lp/economics-cybercrime.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">costing the global economy</a> billions of dollars every year.</p>
1133    <p>At the same time, the supply of cybersecurity skills is struggling to keep up with demand. According to recent
1134        estimates by security training and certification body (ISC)<sup>2</sup>, the <a href="https://blog.isc2.org/isc2_blog/2018/10/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-soars-nearing-3-million.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">worldwide shortage</a> of cybersecurity professionals is rapidly
1135        approaching three million.</p>
1136    <p>That’s a serious shortfall. But great news if you want to work in the cybersecurity industry – including
1137        freelance writing.</p>
1138    <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
1139            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Global-Cybersecurity-Skills-Shortage.png.webp"
1140            alt="Shortage of Cybersecurity Skills across the World"
1141            title="Estimated Shortfall of Cybersecurity Staff across the World" width="491" height="275"
1142            >
1143        <p class="wp-caption-text">The global cybersecurity skills gap
1144            <br><span style="font-weight:normal; margin-top: 0.4em; display: block;">(Image source: <a href="https://blog.isc2.org/isc2_blog/2018/10/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-soars-nearing-3-million.html" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">(ISC)<sup>2</sup></a>)</span>
1145        </p>
1146    </div>
1147    <p>This section is a beginner’s guide to cybersecurity. It focuses on the knowledge you’ll need to take on your
1148        first writing assignment, as well as highlighting the key differences between on-premises and cloud-based
1149        security.</p>
1150    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">What Is Cybersecurity?</h3>
1151    <p>Cybersecurity is very broad in scope, ranging from very simple everyday protection measures, such as enforcing
1152        <strong>strong password </strong>policies, to advanced forensics requiring detailed knowledge of <a href="https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/cryptography" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">cryptography</a>, computer networks, coding languages and operating systems.</p>
1153    <p>However, all aspects of cybersecurity share a common aim – to prevent malicious damage through unauthorised
1154        access to computers, servers, mobile devices, networks and electronic systems.</p>
1155    <p style="margin-bottom: 1em;">The foundations of any robust cybersecurity strategy are made up of three essential
1156        components. These are:</p>
1157    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="cybersecurity-people" class="cybersecurity-foundations"
1158            alt="Headshot Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong
1159            class="cybersecurity-foundations-heading">People</strong>Cultivating a security mindset across your
1160        workforce by educating employees about their role in countering cyberthreats. For example:</p>
1161    <ul class="blog" style="margin-bottom: 1em">
1162        <li>Computer users should be aware of their everyday responsibilities, such as reporting suspicious email
1163            attachments and keeping sensitive data and login credentials confidential.</li>
1164        <li>Developers need to be aware of potential coding exploits and build resilience into their applications.</li>
1165        <li>Operations teams should enforce tight control over user access and privileges.</li>
1166        <li>Specialist cybersecurity staff need to keep up to date with the latest skills and cyberthreats.</li>
1167    </ul>
1168    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="cybersecurity-processes" class="cybersecurity-foundations"
1169            alt="Gears Icon" width="36" height="36"><strong
1170            class="cybersecurity-foundations-heading">Processes</strong>Developing, documenting and implementing
1171        appropriate security policies, frameworks and procedures. These typically include:</p>
1172    <ul class="blog" style="margin-bottom: 1em">
1173        <li>Classifying your data to help identify the level of protection it requires.</li>
1174        <li>Maintaining an <a href="https://www.gartner.com/it-glossary/identity-and-access-management-iam/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">identity and access management (IAM)</a> policy that
1175            limits access rights only to the systems and data users actually need.</li>
1176        <li>Keeping systems up to date with the latest security patches.</li>
1177        <li>Adopting a backup and recovery strategy to prevent data loss in the event of an attack.</li>
1178    </ul>
1179    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="cybersecurity-technology" class="cybersecurity-foundations"
1180            alt="Computer Icon" width="36" height="36"><strong
1181            class="cybersecurity-foundations-heading">Technology</strong>Providing the tools you need to secure your
1182        infrastructure, such as:</p>
1183    <ul class="blog">
1184        <li>Monitoring and alerting tools to help you detect potential attacks.</li>
1185        <li>A firewall to prevent unsolicited traffic from entering or leaving your network.</li>
1186        <li>Automated workflows for deploying coding updates and managing configurations.</li>
1187        <li>A physical backup and recovery system.</li>
1188    </ul>
1189    <p>So now we’ve got the high-level overview out the way, let’s delve a little further.</p>
1190    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Key Cybersecurity Concepts</h3>
1191    <p>The following are a few selected concepts to give you a feel for how cybersecurity works in general. They are
1192        equally important to both on-premises and cloud-based security.</p>
1193    <h4 id="password-hashing" class="cloud-heading-4">Password Hashing</h4>
1194    <p>A <u>one-way</u> cryptographic process that converts a password into an unreadable string of characters known as
1195        a <em>hash</em>. A good hashing algorithm will make it virtually impossible to convert a hash back to its
1196        original password.</p>
1197    <p>To make login systems more secure, password files only store passwords in hashed form.</p>
1198    <p>Whenever you enter your password on a website, the login system simply hashes it again and checks it against the
1199        version stored in the password file. If the two hashes match then it knows you’ve entered your password
1200        correctly.</p>
1201    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
1202            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Password-Hashing.png.webp"
1203            alt="Hash Function Converting Plain Text into an Unreadable String of Characters" width="450" height="253"
1204             class="aligncenter"></p>
1205    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width60"> <img loading="lazy"
1206            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Password-Hashing-Mobile.png.webp"
1207            alt="Hash Function Converting Plain Text into an Unreadable String of Characters" width="414" height="1254"
1208             class="aligncenter"></p>
1209    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4">Brute-Force Attack</h4>
1210    <p>A trial-and-error method of gaining unauthorised access to systems, where a hacker makes repeated login attempts
1211        using different combinations of characters until they eventually hit upon the correct password, username or PIN.
1212    </p>
1213    <p>But this can take a HUGE amount of manual time and effort.</p>
1214    <p>So hackers use automated cracking software, which can perform more than a million guesses in just a second on a
1215        standard home laptop alone. Specially designed machines can run through billions of permutations a second.</p>
1216    <p>Login systems usually incorporate security measures to prevent <em>brute-force attacks</em> – such as locking you
1217        out after several unsuccessful login attempts or using some form of <a href="https://www.lifewire.com/what-is-captcha-3486183" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">CAPTCHA
1218            test</a> that prevents robots from completing online forms.</p>
1219    <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
1220            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/reCAPTCHA.jpg.webp" alt="reCAPTCHA Checkbox"
1221            width="350" height="88" >
1222        <p class="wp-caption-text">A reCAPTCHA checks you’re human by tracking user behaviour in the background</p>
1223    </div>
1224    <p>To get around this, hackers need to steal the target password file first and then launch the <em>brute-force
1225            attack</em> offline.</p>
1226    <p>They also need to know what type of hashing function the login system uses. They can usually tell this from the
1227        length of the hashes. Alternatively, they may set up a dummy account and use the resulting hash to work out
1228        which algorithm created it.</p>
1229    <p>As password cracking is time-consuming and highly resource intensive, many hacking tools go for the low-hanging
1230        fruit before progressively working through all other combinations. For example, they may draw on:</p>
1231    <ul class="blog brute-force-techniques">
1232        <li><strong>Dictionaries:</strong> Where the application tries every word in a list compiled from the
1233            dictionary.
1234            <p>The dictionary technique is often successful because so many people use everyday words that are easy to
1235                remember.</p>
1236        </li>
1237        <li><strong>Rainbow tables: </strong>A huge and complex hash-reversing table, which the software uses to find
1238            plain-text possibilities that correspond to a hash.
1239            <p>Rainbow tables save having to hash each possible password, as the work has already been done in the
1240                table.</p>
1241        </li>
1242        <li><strong>Common patterns:</strong> Using searches for common phrases and predictable keyword combinations,
1243            such as <em>letmein</em>, <em>qwerty</em> and <em>44556611</em>.
1244            <p>They can also exploit patterns in passwords with mixed upper-case, lower-case and numeric characters,
1245                such as <em>Mercedes77</em>, <em>Wyoming41</em> and <em>Watermelon53</em>, which all start with a
1246                capital letter and end with two digits.</p>
1247        </li>
1248    </ul>
1249    <p>The longer your password and the more variation of character types, the longer it will take a hacker to crack it.
1250        And that means they’re far likelier to give up and move onto easier targets.</p>
1251    <table class="password-cracking">
1252        <tbody>
1253            <tr>
1254                <th colspan="3"><strong>Maximum Time to Crack a Password by Brute Force</strong>
1255                    <br> (At 15 Million Attempts per Second)
1256                </th>
1257            </tr>
1258            <tr>
1259                <td class="length"><strong>Length</strong></td>
1260                <td class="complexity"><strong>Complexity</strong></td>
1261                <td class="time"><strong>Time</strong></td>
1262            </tr>
1263            <tr>
1264                <td class="length">4</td>
1265                <td class="complexity">a–z</td>
1266                <td class="time">&lt; 1 second</td>
1267            </tr>
1268            <tr>
1269                <td class="length">4</td>
1270                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9 + symbols</td>
1271                <td class="time">4.8 seconds</td>
1272            </tr>
1273            <tr>
1274                <td class="length">5</td>
1275                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z</td>
1276                <td class="time">25 seconds</td>
1277            </tr>
1278            <tr>
1279                <td class="length">6</td>
1280                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9</td>
1281                <td class="time">1 hour</td>
1282            </tr>
1283            <tr>
1284                <td class="length">6</td>
1285                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9 + symbols</td>
1286                <td class="time">11 hours</td>
1287            </tr>
1288            <tr>
1289                <td class="length">7</td>
1290                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9 + symbols</td>
1291                <td class="time">6 weeks</td>
1292            </tr>
1293            <tr>
1294                <td class="length">8</td>
1295                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9</td>
1296                <td class="time">5 months</td>
1297            </tr>
1298            <tr>
1299                <td class="length">8</td>
1300                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9 + symbols</td>
1301                <td class="time">10 years</td>
1302            </tr>
1303            <tr>
1304                <td class="length">9</td>
1305                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9 + symbols</td>
1306                <td class="time">1000 years</td>
1307            </tr>
1308            <tr>
1309                <td class="length">10</td>
1310                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9</td>
1311                <td class="time">1700 years</td>
1312            </tr>
1313            <tr>
1314                <td class="length">10</td>
1315                <td class="complexity">a–z, A–Z, 0–9 + symbols</td>
1316                <td class="time">91,800 years</td>
1317            </tr>
1318            <tr>
1319                <td colspan="3">Data source: TopLine Strategies</td>
1320            </tr>
1321        </tbody>
1322    </table>
1323    <p>You should also avoid using the same password across each of your online accounts. Because once a hacker obtains
1324        the login details to one of your accounts they’ll have easy access to others.</p>
1325    <blockquote>
1326        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="password-managers-callout"
1327                class="callout-image" alt="Padlock Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong class="callout-heading">Password
1328                Managers</strong></div>
1329        <p>Password management tools, such as <a href="https://www.lastpass.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">LastPass</a> and <a href="https://1password.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">1Password</a>, provide a secure central repository for storing all your different login
1330            credentials. They also offer security features, such as <strong>strong password</strong> generation and
1331            <strong>two-factor authentication (2FA)</strong>.</p>
1332        <p>A 2FA system secures your password vault by requiring an additional login step, such as entering a PIN sent
1333            to your mobile phone. This stops hackers from gaining access on the basis of your username and password
1334            alone.</p>
1335    </blockquote>
1336    <h4 id="private-key-encryption" class="cloud-heading-4">Private-Key Encryption</h4>
1337    <p>A <u>two-way</u> cryptographic process that uses an encryption key to convert an electronic message into an
1338        unreadable string of characters known as <em>ciphertext</em>. The recipient can then convert the message back to
1339        its readable form using the same key.</p>
1340    <p><em>Private-key encryption</em> is highly efficient and plays an important role in securing communication over
1341        the Internet. However, the technology is rarely used in isolation.</p>
1342    <p>This is because both parties would first need to exchange the key over an unsecured connection. A hacker could
1343        potentially gain access to the key by intercepting the initial exchange. They could then use it to decrypt
1344        messages as well as encrypt and send new ones as if they were one of the original two parties.</p>
1345    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
1346            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Private-Key-Encryption.png.webp"
1347            alt="Diagram of How Private-Key Encryption Works" width="450" height="231"
1348             class="aligncenter"></p>
1349    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width60"> <img loading="lazy"
1350            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Private-Key-Encryption-Mobile.png.webp"
1351            alt="Diagram of How Private-Key Encryption Works" width="414" height="1435"
1352             class="aligncenter"></p>
1353    <p><em>Private-key encryption</em> is also known as <strong>symmetric encryption</strong> and <strong>secure-key
1354            encryption</strong>.</p>
1355    <h4 id="public-key-cryptography" class="cloud-heading-4">Public-Key Cryptography</h4>
1356    <p>A <u>two-way</u> cryptographic system that uses two types of key: a <strong>public key</strong> and a
1357        <strong>private key</strong>.</p>
1358    <p>You can share your public key&nbsp;with anyone. But private keys are always kept secret.</p>
1359    <p>Both the public and private key can perform encryption. However:</p>
1360    <ul class="blog">
1361        <li><strong>When someone encrypts a message using your <u>public key</u></strong>: Only your <u>private key</u>
1362            can decrypt it.</li>
1363        <li><strong>When you encrypt a message using your <u>private key</u>:</strong> Anyone with your <u>public
1364                key</u> can decrypt it.</li>
1365    </ul>
1366    <p>These properties provide the basis of three very important applications of <em>public-key cryptography</em>:
1367        <strong>public-key encryption</strong>, <strong>digital signatures</strong> and <strong>digital
1368            certificates</strong>.</p>
1369    <h5 id="public-key-encryption" class="cloud-heading-5">Public-Key Encryption</h5>
1370    <p>With <em>public-key encryption</em>, two computers simply exchange each other’s public keys to set up a secure
1371        connection.</p>
1372    <p>To send someone a message, your computer encrypts it using the recipient’s public key. That message can be sent
1373        securely over an open network because only the intended recipient’s private key can decrypt it.</p>
1374    <p>In the same way, when someone sends you a message, their computer uses your public key – safe in the knowledge
1375        that only your private key can decrypt it.</p>
1376    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
1377            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Public-Key-Encryption.png.webp"
1378            alt="Diagram of How Public-Key Encryption Works" width="450" height="502"
1379             class="aligncenter"></p>
1380    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width60"> <img loading="lazy"
1381            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Public-Key-Encryption-Mobile.png.webp"
1382            alt="Diagram of How Public-Key Encryption Works" width="414" height="3295"
1383             class="aligncenter"></p>
1384    <p><em>Public-key encryption</em> plays an important role in the HTTPS protocol used by secure websites. Whenever
1385        you visit an HTTPS site, the web server and your browser automatically initiate a secure session by exchanging
1386        public keys in the background.</p>
1387    <p>However, <em>public-key encryption</em> comes with a downside.</p>
1388    <p>It’s far more complex and resource intensive than <a href="#private-key-encryption">private-key encryption</a>.
1389        So it’s only used at the beginning of the session to exchange a unique one-time symmetric key between the two
1390        parties. This is then used for faster private-key encryption throughout the remainder of the message sequence.
1391    </p>
1392    <p><em>Public-key encryption</em> is also known as <strong>asymmetric encryption</strong>.</p>
1393    <h5 id="digital-signature" class="cloud-heading-5">Digital Signature</h5>
1394    <p>A <em>digital signature </em>is a cryptographic technique used to verify a digital document, message or piece of
1395        software belongs to the person or organisation that created it.</p>
1396    <p>It can also confirm the integrity of content by proving it couldn’t have been altered since it was originally
1397        created.</p>
1398    <p><em>Digital signatures </em>use the other important property of <a href="#public-key-cryptography">public-key
1399            cryptography</a> – the fact that, when you encrypt a message using your private key, anyone with your public
1400        key can decrypt it.</p>
1401    <p>The signing process works by:</p>
1402    <ul class="blog">
1403        <li>Converting the content into a <a href="#password-hashing">hash</a></li>
1404        <li>Encrypting the hash using the owner’s private key to create the <em>digital signature</em></li>
1405        <li>Appending the signature to the plain-text version of the content</li>
1406    </ul>
1407    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
1408            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Digital-Signing.png.webp"
1409            alt="Diagram Showing How the Digital Signing Process Works" width="665" height="270"
1410             class="aligncenter"></p>
1411    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width60"> <img loading="lazy"
1412            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Digital-Signing-Mobile.png.webp"
1413            alt="Diagram Showing How the Digital Signing Process Works" width="414" height="2076"
1414             class="aligncenter"></p>
1415    <p>The verification process works by:</p>
1416    <ul class="blog">
1417        <li>Converting the plain-text version of the signed content into a hash</li>
1418        <li>Obtaining the hash from the <em>digital signature</em> appended to the content by decrypting it using the
1419            owner’s public key</li>
1420        <li>Comparing the two hashes</li>
1421    </ul>
1422    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
1423            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Digital-Signature-Verification.png.webp"
1424            alt="Diagram Showing How Digital Signature Verification Works" width="665" height="384"
1425             class="aligncenter"></p>
1426    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width80"> <img loading="lazy"
1427            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Digital-Signature-Verification-Mobile.png.webp"
1428            alt="Diagram Showing How Digital Signature Verification Works" width="414" height="1450"
1429             class="aligncenter"></p>
1430    <p>If the two hashes are the same then the signature is valid. This match shows the signature was generated using
1431        the private key that corresponds to owner’s public key. Otherwise you’d end up with a different hash value when
1432        you decrypt it.</p>
1433    <p style="margin-bottom: 0.8em;">If the hashes <em>don’t</em> match then either:</p>
1434    <table style="font-size: 120%; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0.6em; padding-bottom: 0em;">
1435        <tbody>
1436            <tr>
1437                <td class="arrow-left"> <img loading="lazy"
1438                        src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
1439                        alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow"></td>
1440                <td class="arrow-text-right"> <strong>The owner isn’t who they claim to be:</strong> Because the private
1441                    key they used isn’t linked to the public key they presented.</td>
1442            </tr>
1443        </tbody>
1444    </table>
1445    <p style="margin-bottom: 0.6em;"><u>OR</u></p>
1446    <table style="font-size: 120%; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0.4em; padding-bottom: 0em;">
1447        <tbody>
1448            <tr>
1449                <td class="arrow-left"> <img loading="lazy"
1450                        src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
1451                        alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow"></td>
1452                <td class="arrow-text-right"> <strong>The content has been tampered with since it was signed:</strong>
1453                    Because the <em>digital signature </em>is unique to the original content. If you used it to sign a
1454                    document with even the slightest alteration, such as a change to a single letter, the two hashes
1455                    would be totally different.</td>
1456            </tr>
1457        </tbody>
1458    </table>
1459    <p>Finally, remember how we said <a href="#public-key-encryption">public-key encryption</a> is far more complex and
1460        resource intensive than <a href="#private-key-encryption">private-key encryption</a>?</p>
1461    <p>Well, likewise, it’s much slower and more complex than a one-way hash function.</p>
1462    <p>Moreover, hash functions convert the content into a fixed-length value. This is usually much shorter than the
1463        original plain-text version.</p>
1464    <p>That’s the reason for hashing the content first – because it reduces the load of encrypting and decrypting a
1465        potentially much larger document, message or piece of code.</p>
1466    <h5 class="cloud-heading-5">Digital Certificate</h5>
1467    <p>A <em>digital certificate</em> provides a way to check the owner of a public key is, in fact, the person or
1468        organisation they claim they are.</p>
1469    <p><img loading="lazy" src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Digital-Certificate.png.webp"
1470            alt="Physical Representation of a Digital Certificate" width="257" height="161"
1471             id="digital-certificate"><em>Digital certificates </em>are used by
1472        all HTTPS websites and include the following information:</p>
1473    <ul class="blog">
1474        <li>Website owner’s public key</li>
1475        <li>URL of the website</li>
1476        <li><a href="#digital-signature">Digital signature</a> of the issuer (the certificate authority)</li>
1477        <li>Details of the <strong>certificate authority </strong>that issued it</li>
1478        <li>Date from which it became valid</li>
1479        <li>Date on which it expires</li>
1480    </ul>
1481    <blockquote>
1482        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="query-callout"
1483                class="callout-image" alt="Query Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong class="callout-heading">What Is a
1484                Certificate Authority?</strong></div>
1485        <p>A certificate authority or certification authority (CA) is a trusted third party that manages and issues
1486            <em>digital certificates</em> and public keys.</p>
1487        <p>Widely recognised examples of CAs include <a href="https://www.thawte.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Thawte</a>, <a href="https://www.geotrust.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">GeoTrust</a> and <a href="https://sectigo.com/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Sectigo</a>. Some CAs only provide <em>digital
1488                certificates</em> and related services while others provide a wide range of security products, such as
1489            <a href="https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/tip/How-antivirus-software-works-Virus-detection-techniques" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">antivirus software</a> and <a href="https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/firewall" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">firewalls</a>.</p>
1490        <p>Anyone can effectively become a CA and issue <em>digital certificates</em>. So web browsers maintain lists of
1491            <em>digital certificates</em> belonging to those CAs they trust. These are known as root CAs.</p>
1492        <p>Browsers will only trust HTTPS websites with a <em>digital certificate</em> that has either been signed by a
1493            root CA or by an <a href="https://www.thesslstore.com/blog/root-certificates-intermediate/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">intermediate CA</a> whose own <em>digital certificate</em> has
1494            been signed by a root CA.</p>
1495    </blockquote>
1496    <p>CAs issue <em>digital certificates</em> by creating a plain-text version of the certificate content and signing
1497        it with their own private key.</p>
1498    <p>Whenever you visit a HTTPS website, the first thing your browser does is verify the <em>digital certificate</em>.
1499        In simple terms, it performs the following steps:</p>
1500    <ul class="blog">
1501        <li>Checks the website address matches the address in the certificate</li>
1502        <li>Checks the period during which the certificate is valid</li>
1503        <li>Checks the issuer of the certificate is in its list of root CAs (or is an intermediate CA whose own
1504            <em>digital certificate</em> has been signed by a root CA)</li>
1505        <li>Converts the plain-text version of the certificate into a hash</li>
1506        <li>Fetches the public key from the CA’s own <em>digital certificate</em></li>
1507        <li>Obtains the hash from the CA’s signature in the<em> digital certificate</em> for the website by decrypting
1508            it using the CA’s public key</li>
1509        <li>Checks the two hashes for a match</li>
1510    </ul>
1511    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img loading="lazy"
1512            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Digital-Certificate-Verification.png.webp"
1513            alt="Diagram Showing How Browsers Verify Digital Certificates" width="665" height="458"
1514             class="aligncenter"></p>
1515    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only"> <img loading="lazy"
1516            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Digital-Certificate-Verification-Mobile.png.webp"
1517            alt="Diagram Showing How Browsers Verify Digital Certificates" width="414" height="1291"
1518             class="aligncenter"></p>
1519    <p>A <em>digital certificate</em> helps prevent <strong>man-in-the-middle attacks</strong>. This is where an
1520        attacker attempts to intercept your secure connection to a web server and impersonate the website by presenting
1521        a bogus certificate containing their own public key.</p>
1522    <p>However, your browser would reject it, because it only accepts certificates signed by CAs it trusts.</p>
1523    <p>This process forms part of what’s known as an <strong>SSL/TLS handshake</strong>, which is performed every time
1524        you connect to an HTTPS website. The handshake involves several other initialisation steps, which include
1525        exchanging public keys and a shared one-time symmetric key.</p>
1526    <p>A <em>digital certificate</em> is also known as a <strong>public-key certificate</strong>
1527        and&nbsp;<strong>identity certificate</strong>.</p>
1528    <blockquote>
1529        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="query-callout"
1530                class="callout-image" alt="Query Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong class="callout-heading">How Do
1531                Public-Key Algorithms Work?</strong></div>
1532        <p>As a cybersecurity writer, you wouldn’t be expected to know the inner workings of a cryptographic algorithm.
1533        </p>
1534        <p>All the same, it’s useful to have a basic idea of the underlying principle. In other words, the maths that
1535            makes it practically impossible for a hacker to work out the private key from the corresponding public key.
1536        </p>
1537        <p>In simple terms, the private key consists of two <strong>prime numbers</strong> (numbers that can only be
1538            divided by 1 or themselves, such as 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13) while the public key is generated from the result of
1539            multiplying these two numbers together. The prime numbers are referred to as <em>factors</em> and the result
1540            of the multiplication is known as the <em>product</em>.</p>
1541        <p>The security of the algorithm relies on the fact that:</p>
1542        <ul class="block-quote">
1543            <li>The prime numbers used in the private key are very large.</li>
1544            <li>When you multiply two such numbers (to create the public key) you end up with a huge non-prime
1545                <em>product</em> with only those two possible <em>factors</em>.</li>
1546            <li>If you only know the <em>product</em>, it takes an incredible amount of computational work to figure out
1547                what the two corresponding prime numbers are.</li>
1548            <li>So much so that it can take even the largest of supercomputers years to solve them.</li>
1549        </ul>
1550    </blockquote>
1551    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4">Attack Surface</h4>
1552    <p>The more application code you have running on a system, the more physical hardware you use and the more access
1553        points you provide to them, the higher the probability you’ll have some kind of security vulnerability.</p>
1554    <p>To describe this level of exposure, cybersecurity professionals use the term <em>attack surface</em>, which
1555        refers to the total number of entry points through which an attacker could potentially exploit a computer
1556        system.</p>
1557    <p>The term also takes into account the risk of attack from insiders. For example, rogue employees who could
1558        potentially abuse their access to an IT system.</p>
1559    <p><em>Attack surface</em> is a particularly important concern in the cloud.</p>
1560    <p>This is because cloud computing environments are dynamic. In other words, they’re continually changing, making it
1561        harder to maintain good cyber hygiene. What’s more, as users can spin up instances with just a few clicks, they
1562        can easily misconfigure them with insecure settings.</p>
1563    <p>As a result, cloud security tools take a different approach from traditional on-premises solutions. Although they
1564        still detect signs of an attack, they tend to be far more strongly geared towards reducing the <em>attack
1565            surface.</em></p>
1566    <p>They typically help you protect your cloud by identifying:</p>
1567    <ul class="blog">
1568        <li>Unnecessary access points</li>
1569        <li>Unused instances</li>
1570        <li>Redundant storage volumes</li>
1571        <li>Weak password policies</li>
1572        <li>Obsolete user accounts</li>
1573        <li>Key changes to system configurations</li>
1574    </ul>
1575    <blockquote>
1576        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="further-reading-callout"
1577                class="callout-image" alt="Learning Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong class="callout-heading">Further
1578                Reading</strong></div>
1579        <p>The following are resources for more advanced readers with knowledge of coding or database management. They
1580            explain how three common types of cyberattack work and how to prevent them.<strong>&nbsp;</strong></p>
1581        <ul class="block-quote">
1582            <li><strong><a href="https://www.imperva.com/learn/application-security/denial-of-service/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)</a>:
1583                </strong>This article discusses a type of attack in which hackers flood systems with huge numbers of
1584                server requests in a bid to bring them down.</li>
1585            <li><strong><a href="https://www.w3schools.com/sql/sql_injection.asp" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">SQL Injection</a>:</strong> Here you’ll learn how a hacker can potentially
1586                submit malicious code in the input field of a web form to delete or access sensitive information in a
1587                database.</li>
1588            <li><strong><a href="https://www.rapid7.com/fundamentals/cross-site-scripting/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)</a>: </strong>This article explains another code
1589                injection technique, where an attacker dupes an unsuspecting user into loading a malicious script in
1590                their web browser.</li>
1591            <li><strong><a href="https://www.w3schools.com/php/php_form_validation.asp" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">PHP Form Validation</a>:</strong> This tutorial shows developers how to prevent
1592                code injection attacks on PHP forms.</li>
1593        </ul>
1594    </blockquote>
1595    <p>In the next section, we look at the differences between on-premises and public cloud security in more detail.</p>
1596    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">On-Premises vs Cloud Security</h3>
1597    <p>In an on-premises data centre all your computing assets remain fixed pretty well most of the time. They only
1598        change significantly when you replace, upgrade or purchase new servers once in a while.</p>
1599    <p>Traditional security focuses on protecting these static <em>physical</em> environments.</p>
1600    <p>By contrast, your cloud infrastructure is a <em>virtual</em> environment, made up of lots of moving parts.</p>
1601    <p>You’re continually spinning up, closing down, scaling up and scaling down resources as the demand on your
1602        applications changes over time. So keeping tabs on your cloud inventory, knowing what you have running at any
1603        given time, is essential to cloud security.</p>
1604    <p>Moreover, just like the <a href="https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/tip/How-antivirus-software-works-Virus-detection-techniques" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">antivirus software</a> we use on our home computers, traditional
1605        security uses resource-hungry scanning methods.</p>
1606    <p>This is no big deal in on-premises data centre, which is exclusively for your own use. However, the cloud is
1607        shared multi-tenant infrastructure, where resource-intensive solutions can have a negative impact on other
1608        customers.</p>
1609    <p>But the multi-tenant model of the cloud has another much more important implication for security.</p>
1610    <p>When you host your applications within your own in-house data centre, you are responsible for all aspects of
1611        security. But, when you host them in the cloud, you hand over some of the responsibility to your cloud provider.
1612    </p>
1613    <p>So, to help customers understand their security obligations when using their platforms, cloud vendors use a set
1614        of guidelines known as a <strong>shared responsibility model</strong>.</p>
1615    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4">Shared Responsibility Model</h4>
1616    <p>Cloud vendors go to great lengths to provide a secure platform for their users, maintaining tight controls over
1617        the physical security of their data centres and the services they offer.</p>
1618    <p>But they cannot be accountable for those aspects of security that are outside their control. For example, they’re
1619        not responsible for your application code or the access privileges you grant to your systems.</p>
1620    <p>What a shared responsibility model does is set out the obligations of each party, so customers are left in no
1621        doubt about their role in protecting their cloud deployments.</p>
1622    <p>Market leader <strong>AWS</strong> takes a particularly straightforward approach to differentiating roles of
1623        responsibility, as follows:</p>
1624    <ul class="blog">
1625        <li><strong>Security <em><u>of</u></em> the cloud:</strong> The aspects of security for which AWS assumes
1626            responsibility. These include its host operating system and <a href="#hypervisor">hypervisor</a>, the
1627            physical security of its facilities and the integrity of the tools it provides to customers.</li>
1628        <li><strong>Security <em><u>in</u></em> the cloud:</strong> Your responsibilities as an <a href="#iaas">IaaS</a>
1629            customer. These include configuration of your network and other AWS services, the security of guest
1630            operating systems on your <a href="#instance">virtual machines</a> and your own application software.</li>
1631    </ul>
1632    <div id="shared-responsibility">
1633        <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
1634                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/AWS-Shared-Responsibility-Model.png.webp"
1635                alt="AWS Shared Responsibility Model Outlining Responsibilities of Cloud Provider and Customer"
1636                width="665" height="364" >
1637            <p class="wp-caption-text">AWS Shared Responsibility Model: Source <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/compliance/shared-responsibility-model/" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow" target="_blank">AWS</a></p>
1638        </div>
1639    </div>
1640    <div id="shared-responsibility-mobile">
1641        <div class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img loading="lazy"
1642                src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/AWS-Shared-Responsibility-Model-Mobile.png.webp"
1643                alt="AWS Shared Responsibility Model Outlining Responsibilities of Cloud Provider and Customer"
1644                width="364" height="665" >
1645            <p class="wp-caption-text">AWS Shared Responsibility Model: Source <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/compliance/shared-responsibility-model/" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow" target="_blank">AWS</a></p>
1646        </div>
1647    </div>
1648    <blockquote>
1649        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="compliance-callout"
1650                class="callout-image" alt="Compliance Rosette Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong
1651                class="callout-heading">Regulatory Compliance</strong></div>
1652        <p>Many people in the IT industry mistakenly think regulatory compliance and cybersecurity are one and the same.
1653        </p>
1654        <p>Although the two disciplines are closely related, compliance is much wider in scope and focuses on meeting
1655            the requirements of a specific governmental or industry body.</p>
1656        <p>By contrast, cybersecurity is far less concerned with ticking boxes. Instead it focuses on the technicalities
1657            of securing your digital assets – which tend to be more specific to the individual needs of your
1658            organisation.</p>
1659    </blockquote>
1660</section>
1661<section id="big-data">
1662    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
1663        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">Big Data</h2>
1664    </div>
1665    <p><img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="difficulty-level-3" alt="3 Bars out of 7" width="150"
1666            height="47" style="margin-left: 0em; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">
1667        <br> <a href="#freelance-gigs">Skip this section &gt;</a>
1668    </p>
1669    <p>Data is fast becoming a hot commodity. And we’re generating it at an exponential rate.</p>
1670    <p><strong>Google</strong> has indexed more than <a href="https://www.seroundtable.com/google-130-trillion-pages-22985.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">100 trillion websites</a> and serves more than <a href="https://searchengineland.com/google-now-handles-2-999-trillion-searches-per-year-250247" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">5 billion search queries</a> a day. <strong>Facebook</strong>
1671        currently has more than two billion monthly <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/264810/number-of-monthly-active-facebook-users-worldwide/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">active users</a>.</p>
1672    <p><strong>Amazon</strong> lists more than 500 million products on its US website alone.</p>
1673    <p>That’s a serious amount of data.</p>
1674    <p>So how on earth do they store it all? And why don’t their services grind to a halt under the sheer volume of
1675        data?</p>
1676    <p>Well, for starters, they couldn’t rely on traditional database solutions.</p>
1677    <p>These were designed to run on just a single server. And not even the largest of servers has anywhere near the
1678        capacity to host such a colossal amount of data.</p>
1679    <p>And another thing.</p>
1680    <p>The performance of a traditional database system reduces significantly as it increases in size.</p>
1681    <p>Think about it this way.</p>
1682    <p>It takes longer to find a number in a telephone directory than in a short list written on a note pad.</p>
1683    <p>In other words, it’s very quick to find a number in this:</p>
1684    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
1685            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Number-List.jpg.webp"
1686            alt="List of Handwritten Numbers" width="400" height="216" 
1687            class="aligncenter"></p>
1688    <p>But much slower in this:</p>
1689    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
1690            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Telephone-Book.jpg"
1691            alt="Old-Fashioned Telephone Directory" width="400" height="257" 
1692            class="aligncenter"></p>
1693    <p>Traditional databases work in exactly the same way. So the Internet giants had to come up with new solutions to
1694        get at all that data much more quickly.</p>
1695    <p>They developed <a href="#distributed-computing">distributed computing</a> systems that could replicate data
1696        across a network of servers. This meant they could spread the workload of serving vast numbers of searchers,
1697        users or customers.</p>
1698    <p>Then they released their technologies to the wider world, giving other companies a way to manage data at epic
1699        scale.</p>
1700    <blockquote>
1701        <p><strong>Leading Big Data Technologies</strong></p>
1702        <p>Once you start writing about big data, you’ll soon become familiar with many of the open-source projects that
1703            were originally developed by the leading Internet players.</p>
1704        <p>Created by Yahoo!, <a href="https://www.wired.com/2011/10/how-yahoo-spawned-hadoop/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Hadoop</a> is one of the most widely used big data
1705            frameworks. But <strong>Google</strong>, <strong>Facebook</strong> and<strong> LinkedIn </strong>have also
1706            made substantial contributions – with <a href="https://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/MapReduce" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">MapReduce</a>, <a href="https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/Cassandra-Apache-Cassandra" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Cassandra</a> and <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-is-Apache-Kafka" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Kafka</a> respectively.</p>
1707    </blockquote>
1708    <p>As a result, businesses went data crazy.</p>
1709    <p>Finally, they could get deeper insights into consumer behaviour, better target their marketing strategies and
1710        exploit new opportunities to improve the customer experience.</p>
1711    <p>At the same time, big data technology paved the way for interconnectivity and synchronization between personal
1712        computers and handheld devices. And it’s also been the driving force behind the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/internet-of-things-definition" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Internet of Things</a>.</p>
1713    <blockquote>
1714        <p><strong>The Internet of Things (IoT)</strong></p>
1715        <p>The Internet of Things (IoT) is an umbrella term for the interconnected network of smart devices, machinery
1716            and appliances that are able to communicate and interact with each other over the Internet.</p>
1717        <p>The technology is set to transform our daily lives and is already making an impact in applications, such as:
1718        </p>
1719        <ul class="block-quote">
1720            <li>Home automation</li>
1721            <li>Energy management</li>
1722            <li>Remote patient health monitoring</li>
1723            <li>Smart traffic management systems</li>
1724        </ul>
1725    </blockquote>
1726    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">What Is Big Data?</h3>
1727    <p>So what exactly is big data?</p>
1728    <p>Well, there’s no hard and fast definition.</p>
1729    <p>But, basically, you can distinguish it by the following three key characteristics:</p>
1730    <ul class="blog">
1731        <li><strong>Volume: </strong>The huge scale of data.</li>
1732        <li><strong>Velocity:</strong> The sheer speed at which you can generate and process it.</li>
1733        <li><strong>Variety: </strong>The wide variety of data – from text and images to audio and video.</li>
1734    </ul>
1735    <p>What’s more, we also know that:</p>
1736    <ul class="blog">
1737        <li>Traditional database solutions aren’t cut out to handle large volumes of data</li>
1738        <li>The Internet giants came up with <strong>distributed computing</strong> systems to overcome the problem</li>
1739    </ul>
1740    <p>But that still doesn’t tell us a great deal.</p>
1741    <p>So let’s take a closer look at how this all actually works.</p>
1742    <p>The following key database concepts help to explain just that:</p>
1743    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">CAP Theorem</h3>
1744    <p>This sounds pretty heavy. So let’s keep this really simple.</p>
1745    <p><a href="https://dzone.com/articles/better-explaining-cap-theorem" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">CAP
1746            Theorem</a> is a principle that describes the behaviour of different types of distributed data store. By the
1747        term <em>distributed</em>, we mean data that’s stored across a network (cluster) of separate machines (nodes).
1748    </p>
1749    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
1750            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Distributed-Data-Store.png.webp"
1751            alt="Diagram of a Distributed Data Store" width="400" height="297" 
1752            class="aligncenter"></p>
1753    <p>CAP stands for <strong>Consistency (C)</strong>, <strong>Availability (A)</strong> and <strong>Partition
1754            Tolerance (P)</strong>.</p>
1755    <p>Here’s what each of these terms mean.</p>
1756    <ul class="blog">
1757        <li><strong>Consistency</strong><strong>:</strong> Each time you read data, it’s the most up-to-date version.
1758        </li>
1759        <li><strong>Availability: </strong>Data is readily available. In other words, every response to a read request
1760            is returned quickly and without an error.</li>
1761        <li><strong>Partition tolerance</strong><strong>:</strong> The data store will continue to function when there
1762            is a communication break (partition) between nodes in the cluster.</li>
1763    </ul>
1764    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
1765            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Partition-Tolerance.png.webp"
1766            alt="Distributed Data Store with a Communication Break between Two of the Nodes" width="400" height="310"
1767             class="aligncenter"></p>
1768    <p>Now <em>CAP Theorem</em> states that a distributed data store can only guarantee <u>two</u> of these <u>three</u>
1769        properties. In other words, if you want a data store that:</p>
1770    <ul class="blog">
1771        <li><strong>Guarantees consistency:</strong> You can also guarantee availability <u>OR</u> partition tolerance
1772            but <u>NOT</u> both.</li>
1773        <li><strong>Guarantees availability:</strong> You can also guarantee consistency <u>OR</u> partition tolerance
1774            but <u>NOT</u> both.</li>
1775        <li><strong>Guarantees partition tolerance:</strong> You can also guarantee availability <u>OR</u> consistency
1776            but <u>NOT</u> both.</li>
1777    </ul>
1778    <p>So why is this so important in the field of big data?</p>
1779    <p>Because choosing a database solution is a matter of making sacrifices.</p>
1780    <p>In the case of a distributed data store, you have to have partition tolerance. If not, it would mean the whole
1781        system breaks if just one of the connections breaks.</p>
1782    <p>That’s not good.</p>
1783    <p>It would be like the entire rail network coming to a halt because of one failed signal.</p>
1784    <p>So what’s the bottom line?</p>
1785    <p><em>Because a big data database must be partition tolerant, it can guarantee either consistency <u>OR</u>
1786            availability. But <u>NOT</u> both.</em></p>
1787    <p><strong>Think about it:</strong></p>
1788    <ul class="blog">
1789        <li>When data is updated at any one node, it must be rolled out to all the others before you can be sure it’s
1790            consistent. This introduces a delay, which means you can’t guarantee availability.</li>
1791        <li>When you make data instantly available at any one node, there could always be a more up-to-date version (on
1792            one or more other nodes) that hasn’t reached it yet. So you can’t guarantee consistency.</li>
1793    </ul>
1794    <p>On the other hand, a traditional database system only has one node. If that goes down, it means the whole lot has
1795        gone down. So it isn’t partition tolerant. But data is always available and always consistent.</p>
1796    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
1797            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/CAP-Triangle.png.webp"
1798            alt="Triangle Representing CAP Theorem with C, A and P at corners" width="575" height="414"
1799             class="aligncenter"></p>
1800    <h3 id="acid-transactions" class="cloud-heading-3">ACID Transactions</h3>
1801    <p>The best way to understand <em>ACID transactions</em> is to think about the potential pitfalls of an online
1802        banking system.</p>
1803    <p>So imagine, for example, you’re just transferring some money from your current account into your savings.</p>
1804    <p>A whole number of things could potentially go wrong:</p>
1805    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4" style="margin-bottom: 1.2em;">Scenario 1</h4>
1806    <ul class="blog">
1807        <li>Your current account gets debited.</li>
1808        <li>But then, just as it does so, the server goes down and your savings account doesn’t get credited.</li>
1809    </ul>
1810    <p>As a result, you end up out of pocket.</p>
1811    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4" style="margin-bottom: 1.2em;">Scenario 2</h4>
1812    <ul class="blog">
1813        <li>You make the above transfer into your savings. But this time, a friend pays money into your current account
1814            at the same time.</li>
1815        <li>Their transaction starts first.</li>
1816        <li>It reads your initial balance figure and calculates the new balance after payment.</li>
1817        <li>Meanwhile, the online banking system starts to process your own transfer. Your friend’s payment hasn’t yet
1818            completed. So it reads the same initial balance figure as above.</li>
1819        <li>While your transfer is processing, your friend’s payment completes and writes a new higher balance to your
1820            account.</li>
1821        <li>Your transfer completes and writes the new lower balance to your account.</li>
1822    </ul>
1823    <p><strong>But here’s the problem:</strong> Your transaction used the balance figure before your friend’s payment
1824        was written to your account. While it was processing, that balance figure had changed.</p>
1825    <p>So when it writes a new balance figure to your account, it is inaccurate. It hasn’t taken into account your
1826        friend’s payment that took place in the meantime.</p>
1827    <p>As a result, you end up out of pocket.</p>
1828    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4" style="margin-bottom: 1.2em;">Scenario 3</h4>
1829    <ul class="blog">
1830        <li>Your current account gets debited and your savings account gets credited. In other words, your transfer is
1831            successful.</li>
1832        <li>A few minutes later, the online banking system crashes.</li>
1833        <li>The bank needs to rebuild its database from a backup.</li>
1834        <li>It uses a backup it took earlier in the day – before you made the transfer.</li>
1835    </ul>
1836    <p>As a result, the transaction doesn’t show up in your accounts. The transfer has vanished.</p>
1837    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4">ACID Properties</h4>
1838    <p>Of course, in reality, banking systems have safeguards in place to prevent these things from happening. They use
1839        an ACID model of&nbsp;database design, which maintains the integrity of all transactions.</p>
1840    <p>ACID stands for:</p>
1841    <ul class="blog">
1842        <li><strong>Atomicity:</strong> All changes in the transaction are performed OR none of them are.</li>
1843        <li><strong>Consistency:</strong> The data remains valid after the transaction. For example, in the above
1844            scenarios, the combined total balance of your current and savings accounts should be the same before and
1845            after the transaction. Otherwise the database reverts to its previous state.</li>
1846        <li><strong>Isolation:</strong> Simultaneous transactions do not interfere with each other and behave as if
1847            they’re processed one after another (in serial).</li>
1848        <li><strong>Durability:</strong> Each transaction must be logged in some way before new data is committed. This
1849            ensures all database changes can be recovered in the event of a system failure.</li>
1850    </ul>
1851    <p><em>ACID transactions</em> are one of the key features of traditional database systems. However, all the
1852        additional controls come with a performance overhead. So some new-generation databases designed for big data do
1853        not support them.</p>
1854    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
1855            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ACID-Transactions.png.webp"
1856            alt="Summary Table of ACID Properties" width="400" height="215" 
1857            class="aligncenter"></p>
1858    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Relational Databases</h3>
1859    <p>The relational database model has been the mainstay of traditional IT since it was first conceived in 1970 by
1860        British&nbsp;computer scientist&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_F._Codd" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Edgar F. Codd</a>.</p>
1861    <p>At its most basic level, a <em>relational database</em> is a collection of one or more tables, where:</p>
1862    <ul class="blog">
1863        <li>A table contains data organised into a series of rows and columns.</li>
1864        <li>A row represents a set of related data, such as information about a customer, known as a record.</li>
1865        <li>A record consists of fields – one for each column of the table. Each item of data is stored in a field.</li>
1866        <li>A column represents data of the same type, such as <em>Customer ID</em>, <em>Name</em> and <em>Date of
1867                Birth</em>, and contains one value for each&nbsp;row&nbsp;of the table.</li>
1868    </ul>
1869    <p>Here’s what a very simple table might look like:</p>
1870    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img
1871            src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAiYAAAFEAQMAAAAp1GfJAAAAA1BMVEX///+nxBvIAAAAAXRSTlMAQObYZgAAACxJREFUeNrtwQEBAAAAgiD/r25IQAEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAvBliYAAFFkLwyAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC"
1872            id="relational-database1" alt="A Database Table of Products" class="skip-lazy aligncenter"> </p>
1873    <p>However, in many cases, a database contains more than just a single table.</p>
1874    <p>For example, notice how vendor #25 appears more than once in the <em>vendor_id</em> column of the above table. It
1875        would be very inefficient to duplicate the full details about each vendor – especially in a large data set where
1876        they may be repeated many times over.</p>
1877    <p>So a database designer would typically create a separate table as follows:</p>
1878    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img
1879            src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAiYAAAECAQMAAADw1Y64AAAAA1BMVEX///+nxBvIAAAAAXRSTlMAQObYZgAAACdJREFUeNrtwQEBAAAAgiD/r25IQAEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8G5GjAABy2XEggAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=="
1880            id="relational-database2" alt="A Database Table of Vendors" class="skip-lazy aligncenter"> </p>
1881    <p>So why do we call these types of database <em>relational</em>?</p>
1882    <p>Because a database management system would arrange the above data in storage like this:</p>
1883    <div class="dbms-storage-method">
1884        <p>001: 25, Premier Pharmacy Supplies, Falkirk;</p>
1885        <p>002: 30, Remington UK, Manchester;</p>
1886        <p>003: 31, DA Distributors, Halesowen;</p>
1887        <p>004: 36, Tena, Dunstable</p>
1888    </div>
1889    <p>Mathematicians call this method of organising data a <em>relation</em>.</p>
1890    <p>Hence the term <a href="https://www.calebcurry.com/blogs/database-design/what-is-a-relational-database" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">relational database</a>.</p>
1891    <p>But, as humans, we find it much easier to visualise the same set of information in an abstracted two-dimensional
1892        form.</p>
1893    <p>Hence the term <em>table</em>.</p>
1894    <p>We’ll look at new big data alternatives to <em>relational databases</em> later. But, for now, here are some of
1895        the key characteristics of the traditional relational database model:</p>
1896    <ul class="blog">
1897        <li><strong>Highly structured data:</strong> All records in any specific table contain the same clearly defined
1898            fields. At the same time, data in each field must be of the format specified for the column in which it
1899            belongs.</li>
1900        <li><strong>ACID support:</strong> Most relational database systems come with an implementation of <a
1901                href="#SQL">SQL</a> that supports ACID transactions. So they’re primarily designed with data integrity
1902            in mind.</li>
1903        <li><strong>Data consistency:</strong> What you read is always the most up-to-date version.</li>
1904        <li><strong>Scaling</strong>: Deployments are limited to just a single server. So you can only scale your
1905            database <em>vertically</em> by upgrading your hardware. With larger databases, this can be particularly
1906            costly as you’ll need to rely on expensive high-end servers.</li>
1907    </ul>
1908    <p>Although new distributed databases have evolved to handle data at massive scale, <em>relational databases</em>
1909        remain the best choice for many everyday applications.</p>
1910    <p>They’re also still highly relevant to the big data discussion. All the more so, as new solutions are emerging
1911        that combine the data integrity of <em>relational databases</em> with the huge scaling capability of distributed
1912        systems.</p>
1913    <blockquote>
1914        <p><strong>Advanced tip:</strong> One way to improve the performance of a large <em>relational database</em> is
1915            to split it up into smaller, faster and more manageable parts. This Quora <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-replication-partitioning-clustering-and-sharding" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discussion</a> covers the four different options.</p>
1916    </blockquote>
1917    <h3 id="SQL" class="cloud-heading-3">Structured Query Language (SQL)</h3>
1918    <p><em>Structured Query Language (SQL)</em> is the standard computer language used to communicate with virtually all
1919        relational databases.</p>
1920    <p>Here’s what a very simple SQL query might look like:</p>
1921    <blockquote>
1922        <p>SELECT * FROM product_catalog WHERE vendor_id = 25;</p>
1923    </blockquote>
1924    <p>And here’s the result you’d get if you performed that query on our table <em>product_catalog</em> above:</p>
1925    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
1926            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/SQL-Query.png"
1927            alt="All Products in a Database Table with Vendor ID = 25" width="575" height="180"
1928             class="aligncenter"></p>
1929    <p><em>SQL</em> (pronounced either <em>SEQUEL </em>or <em>S-Q-L</em> as you prefer) has become synonymous with
1930        relational databases. So people often use the names <em>relational database</em> and <em>SQL database</em>
1931        interchangeably.</p>
1932    <p>If you want to learn more about <em>SQL</em>,&nbsp;or just get a better feel for how it works, then check out
1933        this <a href="https://www.w3schools.com/sql/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">tutorial</a> at
1934        w3schools.com. You can also experiment with <a href="https://support.office.com/en-us/article/access-sql-basic-concepts-vocabulary-and-syntax-444d0303-cde1-424e-9a74-e8dc3e460671" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">SQL queries</a> if you have <a href="https://products.office.com/en-gb/access" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Microsoft
1935            Access</a>, which comes with the desktop version of Microsoft Office for Windows and a number of Office 365
1936        subscriptions.</p>
1937    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Row-Based Storage</h3>
1938    <p>By and large, relational databases use <em>row-based storage</em>.</p>
1939    <p>What does this mean?</p>
1940    <p>If we return to the <em>vendor_details</em> table above, you’ll recall how we said a database system stores the
1941        data in serial like this:</p>
1942    <div class="dbms-storage-method">
1943        <p>001: 25, Premier Pharmacy Supplies, Falkirk;</p>
1944        <p>002: 30, Remington UK, Manchester;</p>
1945        <p>003: 31, DA Distributors, Halesowen;</p>
1946        <p>004: 36, Tena, Dunstable</p>
1947    </div>
1948    <p>This arrangement is known as <em>row-based storage</em> because the information is organised on disk row by row.
1949    </p>
1950    <p>Look at the first line. You’ll see that the details about Premier Pharmacy Supplies are located next to each
1951        other. The same goes for the other three vendors.</p>
1952    <p>So when a database system retrieves or updates the data in a record of a row-based table, it accesses the same
1953        physically contiguous section of disk. This means row-based systems are quick and efficient at reading and
1954        writing records.</p>
1955    <p>By contrast, they’re not so well geared towards querying large volumes of data.</p>
1956    <p>Take our table of products we used earlier:</p>
1957    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
1958            src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAiYAAAE0AQMAAAAi9moIAAAAA1BMVEX///+nxBvIAAAAAXRSTlMAQObYZgAAACxJREFUeNrtwTEBAAAAwqD1T20ND6AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIA3A1Q4AAEIpVYPAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC"
1959            id="relational-database3"
1960            alt="Database Table of Products with Arrows Pointing to Those Supplied by Vendor #25" width="550"
1961            height="305" class="skip-lazy aligncenter"></p>
1962    <p>Imagine it were much larger and we still wanted to find all products supplied by vendor #25.</p>
1963    <p>The database system would have to scan through the entire table for matching records.</p>
1964    <p>That could be a seriously big workload.</p>
1965    <p>And that’s why not all databases, relational or non-relational, store data this way.</p>
1966    <h3 id="column-based-storage" class="cloud-heading-3">Column-Based Storage</h3>
1967    <p>Tables in column-based systems look just like their row-based counterparts. But behind the scenes they store the
1968        data differently, grouping values by column rather than by row.</p>
1969    <p>So the data in our <em>vendor_details</em> table would be stored like this:</p>
1970    <div class="dbms-storage-method">
1971        <p>25:001, 30:002, 31:003, 36:004;</p>
1972        <p>Premier Pharmacy Supplies: 001, Remington UK: 002, DA Distributors: 003, Tena: 004;</p>
1973        <p>Falkirk: 001, Manchester: 002, Halesowen: 003, Dunstable: 004;</p>
1974    </div>
1975    <p>Now let’s say you want to search your table for vendors in a specific location.</p>
1976    <p>Look how the values for the location column are now grouped together. Your query doesn’t need to scan the entire
1977        table, but only one section of it.</p>
1978    <p>This helps speed up queries and can make a huge difference as your data scales.</p>
1979    <p>On the flip side, notice how the values in each record are now distributed across storage. This means that, by
1980        comparison with row-based systems, reading and writing records is much slower.</p>
1981    <p>A number of different relational databases use <em>column-based storage</em>. But so do several types of
1982        non-relational database.</p>
1983    <p>So let’s look at these in the next section.</p>
1984    <blockquote>
1985        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="further-reading-callout"
1986                class="callout-image" alt="Learning Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong class="callout-heading">Further
1987                Reading</strong></div>
1988        <p>Want to learn more about <em>column-based storage</em>? This <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column-oriented_DBMS" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Wikipedia entry</a> covers it in more detail.</p>
1989    </blockquote>
1990    <h3 class="cloud-heading-3">Non-Relational Databases</h3>
1991    <p><em>Non-relational database</em> is just a general term to describe any type of database that doesn’t follow the
1992        traditional relational model.</p>
1993    <p>The concept of the <em>non-relational database</em> is nothing new. In fact, alternative methods of structuring
1994        data were around long before the relational database existed.</p>
1995    <p>But <em>non-relational databases</em> have seen a rapid resurgence in recent years – in response to the
1996        challenges the leading online players faced as they sought to overcome the scaling limitations of relational
1997        databases.</p>
1998    <p><em>Non-relational databases</em> are also known as <strong>NoSQL databases</strong>. <em>NoSQL</em> originally
1999        stood for <em>non-SQL</em>. But the term has now come to mean <em>Not only SQL</em>. This new meaning highlights
2000        the fact some non-relational systems are able to support SQL-like queries.</p>
2001    <p>There are different types of <em>non-relational database</em>, which are grouped into a variety of categories and
2002        subcategories – one of which is the <a href="#column-based-storage">column-based model</a>. The other three main
2003        classes are as follows:</p>
2004    <h4 id="key-value-store" class="cloud-heading-4">Key-Value Store</h4>
2005    <p>The concept of the <em>key-value store</em> couldn’t be simpler.</p>
2006    <p>Each record is made up of a unique key and a value, known as a <strong>key-value pair</strong>.</p>
2007    <p style="margin-bottom: 1.1em;">Like this:</p>
2008    <table class="key-value-store">
2009        <tbody>
2010            <tr>
2011                <th><strong>Key</strong></th>
2012                <th><strong>Value</strong></th>
2013            </tr>
2014            <tr>
2015                <td>01213896326</td>
2016                <td>Peter Green</td>
2017            </tr>
2018            <tr>
2019                <td>02074317412</td>
2020                <td>Jimmy Hendrix</td>
2021            </tr>
2022            <tr>
2023                <td>01213492123</td>
2024                <td>Eddie Hazel</td>
2025            </tr>
2026            <tr>
2027                <td>02080825113</td>
2028                <td>Jimmy Page</td>
2029            </tr>
2030            <tr>
2031                <td>01353281114</td>
2032                <td>Dave Gilmour</td>
2033            </tr>
2034            <tr>
2035                <td>01223623011</td>
2036                <td>Nile Rodgers</td>
2037            </tr>
2038            <tr>
2039                <td>01702359249</td>
2040                <td>Bootsy Collins</td>
2041            </tr>
2042            <tr>
2043                <td>01497428328</td>
2044                <td>Chris Shiflett</td>
2045            </tr>
2046            <tr>
2047                <td>01512234596</td>
2048                <td>George Harrison</td>
2049            </tr>
2050        </tbody>
2051    </table>
2052    <p>The <u>key</u> can be pretty well any kind of number, text string or binary sequence. However, some database
2053        systems may apply rules and restrictions.</p>
2054    <p>The <u>value</u> can contain anything from a simple text string or number to a list, computer code or even
2055        another key-value pair. With some database management systems you also have the option to specify the data type
2056        for the value.</p>
2057    <p>Unlike the relational database model, which is highly structured, a key-value database gives you the freedom to
2058        store your data any way you like.</p>
2059    <p style="margin-bottom: 1.1em;">For example, in the following data set, the value contains either a vendor name or
2060        vendor location:</p>
2061    <table class="key-value-store">
2062        <tbody>
2063            <tr>
2064                <th><strong>Key</strong></th>
2065                <th><strong>Value</strong></th>
2066            </tr>
2067            <tr>
2068                <td>vendor_name:25</td>
2069                <td>Premier Pharmacy Supplies</td>
2070            </tr>
2071            <tr>
2072                <td>vendor_location:25</td>
2073                <td>Falkirk</td>
2074            </tr>
2075            <tr>
2076                <td>vendor_name:30</td>
2077                <td>Remington UK</td>
2078            </tr>
2079            <tr>
2080                <td>vendor_location:30</td>
2081                <td>Manchester</td>
2082            </tr>
2083            <tr>
2084                <td>vendor_name:31</td>
2085                <td>DA Distributors</td>
2086            </tr>
2087            <tr>
2088                <td>vendor_location:31</td>
2089                <td>Halesowen</td>
2090            </tr>
2091            <tr>
2092                <td>vendor_name:36</td>
2093                <td>Tena</td>
2094            </tr>
2095            <tr>
2096                <td>vendor_location:36</td>
2097                <td>Dunstable</td>
2098            </tr>
2099        </tbody>
2100    </table>
2101    <p><em>Key-value stores</em> scale well because:</p>
2102    <ul class="blog">
2103        <li><strong>They take up less storage:</strong> Relational databases need to reserve space for optional data –
2104            whether they store a value or not. A key-value database doesn’t need to store anything if an optional value
2105            doesn’t exist.</li>
2106        <li><strong>Data retrieval is very simple:</strong> Most <em>key-value stores</em> are designed for quick and
2107            simple lookups via the key. By contrast, relational databases are tailored to making slower, more complex
2108            queries across one or more table columns.</li>
2109        <li><strong>They’re well suited to distributed systems:</strong> The simplicity of the <em>key-value store</em>
2110            makes it much easier to both distribute and access data across a network of nodes.</li>
2111    </ul>
2112    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
2113            src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAiYAAAEaAQMAAAAfUA5OAAAAA1BMVEX///+nxBvIAAAAAXRSTlMAQObYZgAAACpJREFUeNrtwTEBAAAAwqD1T20MH6AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/gZNHAABBUVxowAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=="
2114            id="relational-database4"
2115            alt="Database Table of Vendors with Arrows Pointing to Optional Values (VAT Codes)" width="550" height="289"
2116            class="skip-lazy aligncenter"></p>
2117    <p>Key-value databases are a good choice for storing <strong>user profiles</strong> and <strong>website session
2118            information</strong>, such as the contents of an online shopping basket.</p>
2119    <p>As <em>key-value stores</em> work much like a dictionary or simple two-column lookup table they’re often referred
2120        to as a&nbsp;<strong>dictionary</strong>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<strong>hash</strong>.</p>
2121    <h4 class="cloud-heading-4">Document Store</h4>
2122    <p>A document-oriented database is a more sophisticated class of key-value store, taking the concept a step further
2123        by introducing the notion of a&nbsp;<strong>document</strong>.</p>
2124    <p>In essence, a document performs much the same role as a row in a relational database table. But instead of using
2125        columns to store data about each record, it uses a set of key-value pairs.</p>
2126    <p>Here’s what our vendor data might look like if it were stored in a set of documents:</p>
2127    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img
2128            src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAApkAAAErAQMAAACviwryAAAAA1BMVEX///+nxBvIAAAAAXRSTlMAQObYZgAAAC9JREFUeNrtwTEBAAAAwqD1T20MH6AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgbmNHAAErOWDgAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC"
2129            id="document-store1" alt="Document Store Containing a Collection of Four Documents"
2130            class="skip-lazy aligncenter"> </p>
2131    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width60"> <img loading="lazy"
2132            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Document-Store-Mobile.png.webp"
2133            alt="Document Store Containing a Collection of Four Documents" width="414" height="1718"
2134             class="aligncenter"></p>
2135    <p>As with key-value stores, documents don’t have to have the same fixed structure:</p>
2136    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img
2137            src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAApkAAAEUAQMAAABap7+KAAAAA1BMVEX///+nxBvIAAAAAXRSTlMAQObYZgAAAC1JREFUeNrtwQEBAAAAgiD/r25IQAEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADAlwFbpAAB2NQlkAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=="
2138            id="document-store2"
2139            alt="Collection of Documents Where Each Document Has a Slightly Different Set of Key-Value Pairs"
2140            class="skip-lazy aligncenter"></p>
2141    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width60"> <img loading="lazy"
2142            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Document-Store-Semi-Structured-Mobile.png.webp"
2143            alt="Collection of Documents Where Each Document Has a Slightly Different Set of Key-Value Pairs"
2144            width="414" height="1669"  class="aligncenter"></p>
2145    <p>They can also store nested sets of values or nested sets of key-value pairs.</p>
2146    <p>Like so:</p>
2147    <p class="p-centre-img desktop-only"> <img
2148            src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAApkAAAEXAQMAAADcM80kAAAAA1BMVEX///+nxBvIAAAAAXRSTlMAQObYZgAAAC1JREFUeNrtwQEBAAAAgiD/r25IQAEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAARwZcowABLE9UGAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=="
2149            id="document-store3"
2150            alt="Collection of Documents with Examples of Nested Sets of Values and Nested Sets of Key-Value Pairs"
2151            class="skip-lazy aligncenter"></p>
2152    <p class="p-centre-img mobile-only mobile-width60"> <img loading="lazy"
2153            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Document-Store-Nested-Key-Value-Pairs-Mobile.png.webp"
2154            alt="Collection of Documents with Examples of Nested Sets of Values and Nested Sets of Key-Value Pairs"
2155            width="414" height="1678"  class="aligncenter"> </p>
2156    <p>Logical groupings of documents are organised into <strong>collections</strong>, which are the document store
2157        equivalent of a relational database table:</p>
2158    <p class="p-centre-img"> <img loading="lazy"
2159            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Document-Store-Anatomy.png.webp"
2160            alt="Diagram of a Document-Oriented Database with Documents Organised into Collections" width="375"
2161            height="359"  class="aligncenter"></p>
2162    <p>As with key-value stores, <em>document stores</em> are more scalable than their relational counterparts.</p>
2163    <p>What’s more, because you can structure them how you want, it’s much easier to design a database that fits around
2164        your data.</p>
2165    <p>This often means you can store all the component values of a specific data entity in a single document – rather
2166        than spreading the same information across several relational database tables.</p>
2167    <p>Document-oriented databases share similar use cases to their more basic key-value counterparts and are typically
2168        used for storing <strong>product catalogues</strong>, <strong>web analytics</strong> and <strong>blog
2169            comments</strong>.</p>
2170    <p><strong>Graph Database</strong></p>
2171    <p>So far, all the databases we’ve previously seen only store data. They store what the data is (a value) and what
2172        the data represents (through its label, column name or key).</p>
2173    <p>If you want to know the relationship between any of that data, you need to run a query – just like the SQL query
2174        we showed you earlier:</p>
2175    <blockquote>
2176        <p>SELECT * FROM product_catalog WHERE vendor_id = 25;</p>
2177    </blockquote>
2178    <p>In the above example, the <u>relationship</u> between the products we wanted was vendor #25 (Premier Pharmacy
2179        Supplies).</p>
2180    <p>But this was a very straightforward query on a very simple data set.</p>
2181    <p>So what about more complex data sets, such as a social network?</p>
2182    <p>You’d have to map data to a large, highly rigid and cumbersome set of tables in order to represent the
2183        interconnections between people, likes, mentions, updates and so on.</p>
2184    <p>And querying that data would be a logistical nightmare, involving time-consuming scans across a multitude of
2185        tables.</p>
2186    <p>So what’s the solution?</p>
2187    <p><img loading="lazy" src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Graph-Database.png.webp"
2188            alt="Visual Model of a Graph Database" width="325" height="286" 
2189            id="graph-database">Well, this is where <em>graph databases</em> come in.</p>
2190    <p><em>Graph databases</em> are a completely different database concept.</p>
2191    <p>They don’t just store data but also the connections between data.</p>
2192    <p>They’re designed with relationships in mind.</p>
2193    <p>And, whereas a relational database performs complex calculations and matching operations to map a relationship, a
2194        <em>graph database</em> simply retrieves the relationship from storage.</p>
2195    <p>This makes them perfectly adapted to use cases, such as personalised <strong>product recommendations</strong> on
2196        online retail sites, <strong>fraud detection </strong>and, of course, <strong>social media</strong>.</p>
2197    <p><em>Graph databases</em> are based on graph theory used in mathematics – with pretty much the same concepts and
2198        terminology.</p>
2199    <blockquote>
2200        <div class="heading-wrapper"> <img loading="lazy" src="/layout/trans-img.png" id="further-reading-callout"
2201                class="callout-image" alt="Learning Icon" width="30" height="30"><strong class="callout-heading">Further
2202                Reading</strong></div>
2203        <p>If you want to learn more about how <em>graph databases</em> work then check out this introduction to the <a href="https://neo4j.com/docs/developer-manual/current/introduction/graphdb-concepts/" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">graph data model</a> by graph database management
2204            system Neo4j.</p>
2205    </blockquote>
2206    <p>Now let’s finish this section by looking at the common features and characteristics of all
2207        <em>non-relational</em> databases:</p>
2208    <ul class="blog">
2209        <li><strong>Flexible data structure:</strong> Data can be highly structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
2210            This flexibility reduces the operational overhead of enforcing data formats, streamlining database
2211            management.</li>
2212        <li><strong>Superfast queries:</strong> By and large, <em>non-relational databases</em> sacrifice many
2213            traditional database features in favour of faster query performance.</li>
2214        <li><strong>Horizontal scaling:</strong> <em>Non-relational databases</em> are generally suited to storing large
2215            sets of distributed data – which you can scale <em>horizontally</em> simply by adding more nodes. This makes
2216            them perfectly adapted to the cloud, as you can automatically add more virtual servers as your data grows.
2217        </li>
2218        <li><strong>Query language support: </strong>There is no standard query language for <em>non-relational
2219                databases</em>. Instead, each type of database provides its own query mechanism through a custom <a
2220                href="#api">API</a>. However, many now support SQL-like queries to help encourage migration from
2221            relational databases.</li>
2222    </ul>
2223    <p><strong>And don’t forget:</strong> Your particular choice of <em>non-relational database</em> will come down to a
2224        trade-off between availability and consistency.</p>
2225    <p style="margin-bottom: 0.8em;">In other words, you can <u>EITHER</u> choose a database that guarantees:</p>
2226    <table style="font-size: 120%; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0.6em; padding-bottom: 0em;">
2227        <tbody>
2228            <tr>
2229                <td class="arrow-left"> <img loading="lazy"
2230                        src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
2231                        alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow"></td>
2232                <td class="arrow-text-right"> <strong>Consistency:</strong> Each time you read data, it is the most
2233                    up-to-date version.</td>
2234            </tr>
2235        </tbody>
2236    </table>
2237    <p style="margin-bottom: 0.6em;"><u>OR</u></p>
2238    <table style="font-size: 120%; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0.4em; padding-bottom: 0em;">
2239        <tbody>
2240            <tr>
2241                <td class="arrow-left"> <img loading="lazy"
2242                        src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
2243                        alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow" style="margin-bottom: 18px;"></td>
2244                <td class="arrow-text-right"> <strong>Availability:</strong> Data is readily available. In other words,
2245                    every response to a read request is returned quickly and without an error.</td>
2246            </tr>
2247        </tbody>
2248    </table>
2249    <p>But you cannot have <u>BOTH</u>.</p>
2250    <blockquote>
2251        <p><strong>Database as a Service (DBaaS)</strong></p>
2252        <p>Database as a Service (DBaaS) is currently one of fastest-growing trends in cloud computing.</p>
2253        <p>DBaaS offerings are fully managed services, which automatically take care of the time-consuming tasks
2254            involved in running a database, such as:</p>
2255        <ul class="block-quote">
2256            <li>Infrastructure provisioning</li>
2257            <li>Scaling</li>
2258            <li>Server updates</li>
2259            <li>Backups</li>
2260        </ul>
2261        <p>They help speed up application development by making it quicker and easier to set up and maintain a database
2262            in the cloud.</p>
2263        <p>The leading cloud vendors offer DBaaS solutions for both relational and <em>non-relational databases</em>.
2264        </p>
2265    </blockquote>
2266    <p>Right, we’re done.</p>
2267    <p>But, before we wrap things up, let’s explore the opportunities for writers in this lucrative writing sector.
2268        <br>
2269    </p>
2270</section>
2271<section id="freelance-gigs">
2272    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
2273        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2" id="freelance-heading">How to Find Freelance Writing Gigs</h2>
2274    </div>
2275    <p>Cloud computing is a global business.</p>
2276    <p>So your first cloud writing gig can come from practically anywhere in the world.</p>
2277    <p>Because, in an industry where demand is high and supply is low, clients don’t care where you live – just as long
2278        as you can do the job.</p>
2279    <p>But where do you begin?</p>
2280    <p>The following are a few starting points to get your work search moving:</p>
2281    <div class="freelance-marketing-section">
2282        <table style="font-size: 110%; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; padding-bottom: 0em;">
2283            <tbody>
2284                <tr>
2285                    <td class="arrow-bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy"
2286                            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
2287                            alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow"></td>
2288                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
2289                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Update Your Website</h3>
2290                        <p>Just telling the world you’re a cloud computing writer may be all you need to land your first
2291                            content assignment. So update your website to include your cloud expertise and make it easy
2292                            for prospects to find you.</p>
2293                    </td>
2294                </tr>
2295                <tr>
2296                    <td class="arrow-bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy"
2297                            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
2298                            alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow"></td>
2299                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
2300                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Revise Your Social Profiles</h3>
2301                        <p>Many professionals in the cloud computing industry look for expert writers on social media
2302                            platforms. So, likewise, make sure your profiles include information to help you show up in
2303                            their searches.</p>
2304                        <p>You should also connect with cloud professionals, such as <strong>content managers</strong>
2305                            and <strong>marketing directors</strong>. Nobody wants the hard sell. So focus on building
2306                            relationships and getting yourself hardwired into your new niche sector.</p>
2307                    </td>
2308                </tr>
2309                <tr>
2310                    <td class="arrow-bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy"
2311                            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
2312                            alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow"></td>
2313                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
2314                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Check Out Vendor Marketplaces</h3>
2315                        <p>You can find potential clients by checking out the online marketplaces of each of the leading
2316                            cloud platforms. These are catalogues of third-party cloud applications and solutions, which
2317                            have been approved by the cloud vendor.</p>
2318                        <p>You can use them to find companies that are a good match for your expertise. Once you’ve
2319                            drawn up a list of targets, you can then move onto tracking down the content or marketing
2320                            manager – either on LinkedIn or the company’s website.</p>
2321                        <p>But do your research before you make any kind of approach. You should have a good
2322                            understanding of what your prospects do and how you could potentially help them. Otherwise
2323                            you’ll just waste their valuable time. And yours.</p>
2324                        <p><strong>Quick Links:</strong>
2325                            <br> <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/marketplace" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">AWS Marketplace</a>
2326                            <br> <a href="https://azuremarketplace.microsoft.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Azure Marketplace</a>
2327                            <br> <a href="https://cloud.google.com/marketplace/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Google Cloud Platform Marketplace</a>
2328                        </p>
2329                    </td>
2330                </tr>
2331                <tr>
2332                    <td class="arrow-bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy"
2333                            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
2334                            alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow"></td>
2335                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
2336                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Connect with Vendor Partners</h3>
2337                        <p>Each cloud provider has its own network of independent accredited partners, who are able to
2338                            support customers with expertise in areas such as digital transformation, <a
2339                                href="#hybrid-cloud">hybrid cloud</a> and application development.</p>
2340                        <p>Just as with third-party marketplace vendors, they all need content. In particular,
2341                            long-form<strong> blog posts</strong>, <strong>case studies</strong> and <strong>white
2342                                papers</strong>.</p>
2343                        <p><strong>Quick Links:</strong>
2344                            <br> <a href="https://aws.amazon.com/partners/find/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">AWS Partner Network</a>
2345                            <br> <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-gb/solution-providers/home" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Azure Partners</a>
2346                            <br> <a href="https://cloud.google.com/partners/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Google Cloud Partners</a>
2347                        </p>
2348                    </td>
2349                </tr>
2350                <tr>
2351                    <td class="arrow-bullet-left"> <img loading="lazy"
2352                            src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Circled-Arrow-Cloud-Computing.png.webp"
2353                            alt="" width="25" height="25" class="circled-arrow"></td>
2354                    <td class="bullet-text-right">
2355                        <h3 class="bullet-heading-3">Reach Out to Event Sponsors</h3>
2356                        <p>You can find leads by checking the list of sponsors or exhibitors at major cloud <a
2357                                href="#cloud-summits">trade shows</a> and conferences.</p>
2358                        <p>If you can attend in person, you’ll also get the opportunity to meet prospects face-to-face.
2359                        </p>
2360                        <p>But remember sponsors will be busy talking to their own prospects and customers. So respect
2361                            their time.</p>
2362                    </td>
2363                </tr>
2364            </tbody>
2365        </table>
2366    </div>
2367    <blockquote>
2368        <p><strong>IamOnDemand</strong></p>
2369        <p>
2370            <a href="https://www.iamondemand.com/" id="trackIOD" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"><img
2371                    loading="lazy" src="https://writeonline.io/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IamOnDemand-Logo.png"
2372                    id="IoD" alt="IamOnDemand Logo" width="101" height="79"></a><a href="https://www.iamondemand.com/" id="trackIOD" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">IamOnDemand</a> is an Israel-based tech writing
2373            agency that supplies content to some of the biggest names in the cloud computing industry. It is expanding
2374            rapidly and continually seeks out talented tech experts and bloggers to meet increasing demand.
2375        </p>
2376        <p>Just as with any agency, it takes a significant cut from each project. But it delivers work to high standards
2377            and pays writers a good rate accordingly.</p>
2378        <p>IamOnDemand can provide you with a consistent flow of writing work in a variety of different cloud and
2379            cloud-related technologies. It also has a knowledge team to help writers out with their technical questions.
2380        </p>
2381        <p>The company favours tech experts over traditional writers, as it has a team of reviewers who ensure content
2382            meets strict editorial and quality guidelines. However, it welcomes writers with sound IT knowledge or
2383            experience – especially those who are prepared to roll up their sleeves and learn new technologies.</p>
2384    </blockquote>
2385</section>
2386<section>
2387    <div class="heading2-wrapper">
2388        <h2 class="cloud-heading-2">Summing Up</h2>
2389    </div>
2390    <p>Cloud computing isn’t hard to learn. Although, with so much to take in, it may seem overwhelming at first.</p>
2391    <p>But here’s the good news.</p>
2392    <p>A general copywriter has to familiarise themselves with a new industry practically every time they start a new
2393        project. But, as a cloud specialist, you only have to learn one.</p>
2394    <p>Sure, the learning curve is steep.</p>
2395    <p>Your first writing assignments will take you longer.</p>
2396    <p>But, little by little, your work gets easier as you develop your knowledge.</p>
2397    <p>Before you know it, you’ll become a cloud computing expert – with the technical and writing skills clients are so
2398        desperately looking for.</p>
2399    <p>And, once you’ve cracked it, you’ll be in the money.
2400        <br>
2401    </p>
2402</section>