· 5 years ago · Jul 10, 2020, 05:42 PM
1Fornt page:-
2
3
4<!DOCTYPE html>
5<html><title>Science Factory</title>
6<meta charset="UTF-8">
7<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
8<link rel = "icon" href ="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Logo.jpg" type = "image/x-icon">
9<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.w3schools.com/w3css/4/w3.css">
10<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Raleway">
11<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">
12<style>
13body,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {font-family: "Raleway", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif}
14.mySlides {display: none}
15</style>
16<body class="w3-content w3-border-left w3-border-right">
17
18
19
20<!-- Sidebar/menu -->
21<nav class="w3-sidebar w3-light-grey w3-collapse w3-top" style="z-index:3;width:260px" id="mySidebar">
22 <div class="w3-container w3-display-container w3-padding-16">
23 <i onclick="w3_close()" class="fa fa-remove w3-hide-large w3-button w3-transparent w3-display-topright"></i>
24 <h2>Science Factory</h2>
25 <h6>Back to School</h6>
26 <hr>
27 <form action="/action_page.php" target="_blank">
28 <p><label> </label>Mobile Number</p>
29 <input class="w3-input w3-border" type="text" placeholder="Ex:+880-12345-67891" name="Mobile Number" required>
30 </i> Password</label></p>
31 <input class="w3-input w3-border" type="password" placeholder="XXXXXXXXXX" name="psw" required>
32 <h5><a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Main%20page.html"<button class="w3-button w3-block w3-black w3-first" type="submit""><p> Log In </button></p> </h5></a>
33 </form>
34 </div>
35 <div class="w3-bar-block">
36 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Join%20With%20Us.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-16" onclick="document.getElementById('subscribe').style.display='block'"><i class="fa fa-rss"></i> Sign up</a>
37 <a href="#contact" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-16"><i class="fa fa-envelope"></i> Contact us </a>
38 </div>
39</nav>
40
41
42
43
44<!-- Top menu on small screens -->
45<header class="w3-bar w3-top w3-hide-large w3-black w3-xlarge">
46 <span class="w3-bar-item">Rental</span>
47 <a href="javascript:void(0)" class="w3-right w3-bar-item w3-button" onclick="w3_open()"></a>
48</header>
49
50
51
52<!-- Overlay effect when opening sidebar on small screens -->
53<div class="w3-overlay w3-hide-large" onclick="w3_close()" style="cursor:pointer" title="close side menu" id="myOverlay"></div>
54
55
56
57<!-- !PAGE CONTENT! -->
58<div class="w3-main w3-white" style="margin-left:260px">
59
60
61
62 <!-- Push down content on small screens -->
63 <div class="w3-hide-large" style="margin-top:80px"></div>
64
65 <!-- Slideshow Header -->
66 <div class="w3-container" id="apartment">
67 <h2 class="w3-text-green">Welcome To </h2>
68 <div class="w3-display-container mySlides">
69 <img src="Front page pic1.jpg" style="width:100%;margin-bottom:-6px">
70 <div class="w3-display-bottomleft w3-container w3-black">
71 <p>Back to School</p>
72 </div>
73 </div>
74
75
76<!-- Subscribe Modal -->
77<div id="subscribe" class="w3-modal">
78 <div class="w3-modal-content w3-animate-zoom w3-padding-large">
79 <div class="w3-container w3-white w3-center">
80 <i onclick="document.getElementById('subscribe').style.display='none'" class="fa fa-remove w3-button w3-xlarge w3-right w3-transparent"></i>
81 <h2 class="w3-wide">SUBSCRIBE</h2>
82 <p>Join our mailing list to receive updates on available dates and special offers.</p>
83 <p><input class="w3-input w3-border" type="text" placeholder="Enter e-mail"></p>
84 <button type="button" class="w3-button w3-padding-large w3-green w3-margin-bottom" onclick="document.getElementById('subscribe').style.display='none'">Subscribe</button>
85 </div>
86 </div>
87</div><!-- Page Content -->
88<div class="w3-padding-large" id="main">
89 <!-- Header/Home -->
90
91 <h1 class="w3-jumbo"><span class="w3-hide-small"></span>Science Factory</h1>
92 <h4><p>Back to School</h4></p>
93 <img src="Main page pic1.jpg" alt="Back to School" class="w3-image" width="992" height="1108">
94 </header>
95
96
97
98
99
100
101 <!-- Portfolio Section -->
102 <div class="w3-padding-64 w3-content" id="photos">
103 <h2 class="w3-text-grey-black">Our Photos</h2>
104 <hr style="width:200px" class="w3-opacity">
105
106 <!-- Grid for photos -->
107 <div class="w3-row-padding" style="margin:0 -16px">
108 <div class="w3-half">
109 <img src="Front page pic1.jpg" style="width:100%">
110 <img src="Logo.jpg" style="width:100%">
111 <img src="Main page pic1.jpg" style="width:100%">
112 </div>
113
114 <div class="w3-half">
115 <img src="Simple pic1.jpg" style="width:100%">
116 <img src="Poster3.jpg" style="width:100%">
117 <img src="Simple pic2.jpg" style="width:100%">
118 </div>
119 <!-- End photo grid -->
120 </div>
121 <!-- End Portfolio Section -->
122 </div>
123
124 <!-- Contact Section -->
125 <div class="w3-padding-64 w3-content w3-text-grey" id="contact">
126 <h2 class="w3-text-black">Contact Us</h2>
127 <hr style="width:200px" class="w3-opacity">
128
129 <div class="w3-section">
130 <p><i class="fa fa-map-marker fa-fw w3-text-black w3-xxlarge w3-margin-right"></i>Dhaka,Bangladesh</p>
131 <p><i class="fa fa-phone fa-fw w3-text-black w3-xxlarge w3-margin-right"></i> Phone: +880-19098-27733</p>
132 <p><i class="fa fa-envelope fa-fw w3-text-black w3-xxlarge w3-margin-right"> </i>Email: rudrochowdhury016@gmail.com</p>
133 </div><br>
134 <p>Let's get in touch. Send us a message:</p>
135
136 <form action="/action_page.php" target="_blank">
137 <p><input class="w3-input w3-padding-16" type="text" placeholder="Name" required name="Name"></p>
138 <p><input class="w3-input w3-padding-16" type="text" placeholder="Email" required name="Email"></p>
139 <p><input class="w3-input w3-padding-16" type="text" placeholder="Subject" required name="Subject"></p>
140 <p><input class="w3-input w3-padding-16" type="text" placeholder="Message" required name="Message"></p>
141 <p>
142 <button class="w3-button w3-light-grey w3-padding-large" type="submit">
143 <i class="fa fa-paper-plane"></i> SEND MESSAGE
144 </button>
145 </p>
146 </form>
147 <!-- End Contact Section -->
148 </div>
149
150 <!-- Footer -->
151 <footer class="w3-content w3-padding-64 w3-text-grey w3-xlarge">
152 <i class="fa fa-facebook-official w3-hover-opacity"></i>
153 <i class="fa fa-youtube w3-hover-opacity"></i>
154 <i class="fa fa-instagram w3-hover-opacity"></i>
155 <i class="fa fa-pinterest-p w3-hover-opacity"></i>
156 <i class="fa fa-twitter w3-hover-opacity"></i>
157 <i class="fa fa-linkedin w3-hover-opacity"></i>
158 <!-- End footer -->
159 </footer>
160
161<!-- END PAGE CONTENT -->
162</div>
163
164</body>
165</html>
166
167Join page:-
168<!DOCTYPE html>
169<html>
170<style>
171body {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;}
172* {box-sizing: border-box}
173
174/* Full-width input fields */
175input[type=text], input[type=password] {
176 width: 100%;
177 padding: 15px;
178 margin: 5px 0 22px 0;
179 display: inline-block;
180 border: none;
181 background: #f1f1f1;
182}
183
184input[type=text]:focus, input[type=password]:focus {
185 background-color: #ddd;
186 outline: none;
187}
188
189hr {
190 border: 1px solid #f1f1f1;
191 margin-bottom: 25px;
192}
193
194/* Set a style for all buttons */
195button {
196 background-color: #4CAF50;
197 color: white;
198 padding: 14px 20px;
199 margin: 8px 0;
200 border: none;
201 cursor: pointer;
202 width: 100%;
203 opacity: 0.9;
204}
205
206button:hover {
207 opacity:1;
208}
209
210/* Extra styles for the cancel button */
211.cancelbtn {
212 padding: 14px 20px;
213 background-color: #f44336;
214}
215
216/* Float cancel and signup buttons and add an equal width */
217.cancelbtn, .signupbtn {
218 float: left;
219 width: 50%;
220}
221
222/* Add padding to container elements */
223.container {
224 padding: 16px;
225}
226
227/* Clear floats */
228.clearfix::after {
229 content: "";
230 clear: both;
231 display: table;
232}
233
234/* Change styles for cancel button and signup button on extra small screens */
235@media screen and (max-width: 300px) {
236 .cancelbtn, .signupbtn {
237 width: 100%;
238 }
239}
240</style>
241<body>
242
243<form action="/action_page.php" style="border:1px solid #ccc">
244 <div class="container">
245 <h1>Join With Us</h1>
246 <p>Please fill in this form to Join with us.</p>
247 <hr>
248
249 <label for="name"><b>Full Name</b></label>
250 <input type="text" placeholder="Enter Full Name" name="name" required>
251
252 <label for="email"><b>School Name</b></label>
253 <input type="text" placeholder="Enter School Name" name="name" required>
254
255 <p>
256 <label for="email"><b>Enter your class</b></label>
257 <p><input type="number" id="quantity" name="quantity" min="1" max="10"></p>
258 </P>
259
260 <label for="email"><b>Mobile Number</b></label>
261 <input type="text" placeholder="Enter Mobile Number" name="mobile" required>
262
263 <label for="psw"><b>Password</b></label>
264 <input type="password" placeholder="Enter Password" name="psw" required>
265
266 <label for="psw-repeat"><b>Repeat Password</b></label>
267 <input type="password" placeholder="Repeat Password" name="psw-repeat" required>
268
269 <label>
270 <input type="checkbox" checked="checked" name="remember" style="margin-bottom:15px"> Remember me
271 </label>
272
273 <p>By creating an account you agree to our <a href="https://policies.google.com/" style="color:dodgerblue">Terms & Privacy</a>.</p>
274
275 <div class="clearfix">
276 <button type="button" class="cancelbtn">Cancel</button>
277 <button type="submit" class="signupbtn">Sign Up</button>
278 </div>
279 </div>
280</form>
281
282</body>
283</html>
284
285
286Main page:-
287<!DOCTYPE html>
288<html>
289<body>
290<title>Science Factory</title>
291<meta charset="UTF-8">
292<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
293<link rel = "icon" href ="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Logo.jpg" type = "image/x-icon">
294<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.w3schools.com/w3css/4/w3.css">
295<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Montserrat">
296<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">
297<style>
298body, h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {font-family: "Montserrat", sans-serif}
299.w3-row-padding img {margin-bottom: 12px}
300/* Set the width of the sidebar to 120px */
301.w3-sidebar {width: 120px;background: #222;}
302/* Add a left margin to the "page content" that matches the width of the sidebar (120px) */
303#main {margin-left: 120px}
304/* Remove margins from "page content" on small screens */
305@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) {#main {margin-left: 0}}
306</style>
307<body class="w3-black">
308
309<!-- Icon Bar (Sidebar - hidden on small screens) -->
310<nav class="w3-sidebar w3-bar-block w3-small w3-hide-small w3-center">
311 <!-- Avatar image in top left corner -->
312 <img src="Logo.jpg" style="width:100%">
313
314
315
316
317
318 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Main%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
319 <i class="a fa fa-home w3-xxlarge"></i>
320 <p>HOME</p>
321 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/History%20of%20Science%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
322 <i class="fa fa-history w3-xxlarge"></i>
323 <p>History of Science</p>
324 </a>
325 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Story%20of%20Scientific%20Invention.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
326 <i class="fa fa-youtube-play w3-xxlarge"></i>
327 <p>Story of Scientific Invention</p>
328 </a>
329
330 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Lab.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
331 <i class="f fa fa-cogs w3-xxlarge"></i>
332 <p>My Lab</p>
333 </a>
334 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Training.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
335 <i class="fa fa-graduation-cap w3-xxlarge"></i>
336 <p>Scientific Training</p>
337 </a>
338 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Interesting%20Information%20About%20Science.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
339 <i class="fa fa-eye w3-xxlarge"></i>
340 <p>Interesting Information About Science</p>
341 </a>
342 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Competition.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
343 <i class="fa fa-pencil w3-xxlarge"></i>
344 <p>Scientific Competition</p>
345 </a>
346 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Book.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
347 <i class="fa fa-book w3-xxlarge"></i>
348 <p>Scientific Book</p>
349 </a>
350<a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Dictionary.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
351 <i class="fa fa-search w3-xxlarge"></i>
352 <p>Scientific Dictionary</p>
353 </a>
354 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science Factory_331340/Scientific FAQ.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
355 <i class="fa fa-question w3-xxlarge"></i>
356 <p>Scientific FAQ</p>
357 </a>
358 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Account.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
359 <i class="fa fa-address-book-o w3-xxlarge"></i>
360 <p>My Account</p>
361 </a>
362</nav>
363
364
365<header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
366<a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Bangla%20page.html">
367 <button type="button">Translate in bangla</button>
368</a>
369
370
371<!-- Page Content -->
372<div class="w3-padding-large" id="main">
373 <!-- Header/Home -->
374
375 <h1 class="w3-jumbo"><span class="w3-hide-small"></span>Science Factory</h1>
376 <h4><p>Back to School</h4></p>
377 <img src="Main page pic1.jpg" alt="Back to School" class="w3-image" width="992" height="1108">
378 </header>
379
380
381
382
383 <!-- About Section -->
384 <div class="w3-content w3-justify w3-text-grey w3-padding-64" id="about">
385
386
387 <h2 class="w3-text-light-black">Our Achieve</h2>
388 <hr style="width:200px" class="w3-opacity">
389 <p class="w3-wide">Information</p>
390 <div class="w3-white">
391 <div class="w3-dark-grey" style="height:28px;width:95%"></div>
392 </div>
393 <p class="w3-wide">Videos</p>
394 <div class="w3-white">
395 <div class="w3-dark-grey" style="height:28px;width:85%"></div>
396 </div>
397 <p class="w3-wide">Projects</p>
398 <div class="w3-white">
399 <div class="w3-dark-grey" style="height:28px;width:80%"></div>
400 </div><br>
401
402
403
404 <!-- Portfolio Section -->
405 <div class="w3-padding-64 w3-content" id="photos">
406 <h2 class="w3-text-light-grey">Our Photos</h2>
407 <hr style="width:200px" class="w3-opacity">
408
409 <!-- Grid for photos -->
410 <div class="w3-row-padding" style="margin:0 -16px">
411 <div class="w3-half">
412 <img src="Front page pic1.jpg" style="width:100%">
413 <img src="Logo.jpg" style="width:100%">
414 <img src="Main page pic1.jpg" style="width:100%">
415 </div>
416
417 <div class="w3-half">
418 <img src="Simple pic1.jpg" style="width:100%">
419 <img src="Poster3.jpg" style="width:100%">
420 <img src="Simple pic2.jpg" style="width:100%">
421 </div>
422 <!-- End photo grid -->
423 </div>
424 <!-- End Portfolio Section -->
425 </div>
426
427 <!-- Contact Section -->
428 <div class="w3-padding-64 w3-content w3-text-grey" id="contact">
429 <h2 class="w3-text-light-grey">Contact Us</h2>
430 <hr style="width:200px" class="w3-opacity">
431
432 <div class="w3-section">
433 <p><i class="fa fa-map-marker fa-fw w3-text-white w3-xxlarge w3-margin-right"></i>Dhaka,Bangladesh</p>
434 <p><i class="fa fa-phone fa-fw w3-text-white w3-xxlarge w3-margin-right"></i> Phone: +880-19098-27733</p>
435 <p><i class="fa fa-envelope fa-fw w3-text-white w3-xxlarge w3-margin-right"> </i>Email: rudrochowdhury016@gmail.com</p>
436 </div><br>
437 <p>Let's get in touch. Send us a message:</p>
438
439 <form action="/action_page.php" target="_blank">
440 <p><input class="w3-input w3-padding-16" type="text" placeholder="Name" required name="Name"></p>
441 <p><input class="w3-input w3-padding-16" type="text" placeholder="Email" required name="Email"></p>
442 <p><input class="w3-input w3-padding-16" type="text" placeholder="Subject" required name="Subject"></p>
443 <p><input class="w3-input w3-padding-16" type="text" placeholder="Message" required name="Message"></p>
444 <p>
445 <button class="w3-button w3-light-grey w3-padding-large" type="submit">
446 <i class="fa fa-paper-plane"></i> SEND MESSAGE
447 </button>
448 </p>
449 </form>
450 <!-- End Contact Section -->
451 </div>
452
453 <!-- Footer -->
454 <footer class="w3-content w3-padding-64 w3-text-grey w3-xlarge">
455 <i class="fa fa-facebook-official w3-hover-opacity"></i>
456 <i class="fa fa-youtube w3-hover-opacity"></i>
457 <i class="fa fa-instagram w3-hover-opacity"></i>
458 <i class="fa fa-pinterest-p w3-hover-opacity"></i>
459 <i class="fa fa-twitter w3-hover-opacity"></i>
460 <i class="fa fa-linkedin w3-hover-opacity"></i>
461 <!-- End footer -->
462 </footer>
463
464<!-- END PAGE CONTENT -->
465</div>
466
467</body>
468</html>
469History of Science page:-
470<!DOCTYPE html>
471<html>
472<title>Science Factory</title>
473<meta charset="UTF-8">
474<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
475<link rel = "icon" href ="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Logo.jpg" type = "image/x-icon">
476<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.w3schools.com/w3css/4/w3.css">
477<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Montserrat">
478<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">
479<style>
480body, h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {font-family: "Montserrat", sans-serif}
481.w3-row-padding img {margin-bottom: 12px}
482/* Set the width of the sidebar to 120px */
483.w3-sidebar {width: 120px;background: #222;}
484/* Add a left margin to the "page content" that matches the width of the sidebar (120px) */
485#main {margin-left: 120px}
486/* Remove margins from "page content" on small screens */
487@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) {#main {margin-left: 0}}
488</style>
489<body class="w3-black">
490
491<!-- Icon Bar (Sidebar - hidden on small screens) -->
492<nav class="w3-sidebar w3-bar-block w3-small w3-hide-small w3-center">
493 <!-- Avatar image in top left corner -->
494 <img src="Logo.jpg" style="width:100%">
495 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Main2%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-black">
496 <i class="fa fa-home w3-xxlarge"></i>
497 <p>HOME</p>
498 </a>
499 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/History%20of%20Science%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
500 <i class="fa fa-history w3-xxlarge"></i>
501 <p>History of Science</p>
502 </a>
503 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Story%20of%20Scientific%20Invention.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
504 <i class="fa fa-youtube-play w3-xxlarge"></i>
505 <p>Story of Scientific Invention </p>
506 </a>
507 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Lab.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
508 <i class="f fa fa-cogs w3-xxlarge"></i>
509 <p>My Lab</p>
510 </a>
511 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Training.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
512 <i class="fa fa-graduation-cap w3-xxlarge"></i>
513 <p>Scientific Training</p>
514 </a>
515 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Interesting%20Information%20About%20Science.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
516 <i class="fa fa-eye w3-xxlarge"></i>
517 <p>Interesting Information About Science</p>
518 </a>
519 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Competition.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
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553 <h1 class="w3-jumbo"><span class="w3-hide-small"></span>History of Science</h1>
554 <h4><p>The History of Science is the study of the development of science, including both the natural and social sciences (the history of the arts and humanities is termed history of scholarship). Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real-world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods employed by historians of science.
555The English word scientist is relatively recent, first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century.Before that, investigators of nature called themselves "natural philosophers". While observations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales and Aristotle), and the scientific method has been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham and Roger Bacon), modern science began to develop in the early modern period, and in particular in the scientific revolution of 16th- and 17th-century Europe. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those earlier inquiries.
556From the 18th through the late 20th century, the history of science, especially of the physical and biological sciences, was often presented as a progressive accumulation of knowledge, in which true theories replaced false beliefs. More recent historical interpretations, such as those of Thomas Kuhn, tend to portray the history of science in terms of competing paradigms or conceptual systems within a wider matrix of intellectual, cultural, economic and political trends. These interpretations, however, have met with opposition for they also portray the history of science as an incoherent system of incommensurable paradigms, not leading to any actual scientific progress but only to the illusion that it has occurred.
557</h4></p>
558 <h1><p>Early cultures</h1></p>
559<h4><p>In prehistoric times, knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. For instance, the domestication of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico, before the development of writing systems Similarly, archaeological evidence indicates the development of astronomical knowledge in preliterate societies. The development of writing enabled humans to store and communicate knowledge across generations with much greater accuracy.
560Many ancient civilizations systematically collected astronomical observations. Rather than speculating on the material nature of the planets and stars, the ancients charted the relative positions of celestial bodies, often inferring their influence on human individuals and humankind. This demonstrates how ancient investigators generally employed a holistic intuition, assuming the interconnectedness of all things, whereas modern science rejects such conceptual leaps [citation needed]
561Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and alchemy was practiced in several civilizations Considerable observation of macroscopic flora and fauna was a also performed.
562
563
564 <h1><p>Ancient Near East</h1></p>
565<h4><p>Further information: Babylonian astronomy, Babylonian mathematics, and Babylonian medicine Clay models of animal livers dating between the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries BCE, found in the royal palace at Mari in </h4></p>
566 <img src="Ancient Near East.jpg" style="width:8%">
567<h4><p>what is now Syria The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction between "rational science" and magic. When a person became ill, doctors prescribed magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal treatments. The earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 BC – c. 2004 BC). The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BC).[19] In East Semitic cultures, the main medicinal authority was a kind of exorcist-healer known as an āšipu.[13][14][15] The profession was generally passed down from father to son and was held in extremely high regard. Of less frequent recourse was another kind of healer known as an asu, who corresponds more closely to a modern physician and treated physical symptoms using primarily folk remedies composed of various herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or poultices. These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced prophylaxis and took measures to prevent the spread of disease.
568The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the chemical properties of clay, sand, metal ore, bitumen, stone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing. Metallurgy required scientific knowledge about the properties of metals. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the universe. Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines. Animal physiology was studied extensively for the purpose of divination; the anatomy of the liver, which was seen as an important organ in haruspicy, was studied in particularly intensive detail. Animal behavior was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived. The Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322, dating to the eighteenth century BC, records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ..., hinting that the ancient Mesopotamians might have been aware of the Pythagorean theorem over a millennium before Pythagoras.
569</h4></p>
570<img src="Ancient Near East2.jpg" style="width:25%">
571 <h4><p>Mesopotamian clay tablet, 492 BC. Writing allowed the recording of astronomical information.
572In Babylonian astronomy, records of the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month. Using these data they developed arithmetical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year and to predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of Kidinnu, a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."</h4></p>
573
574
575 <h1><p>Egypt</h1></p>
576<h4><p>Main articles: Egyptian astronomy, Egyptian mathematics, and Egyptian medicine
577Ancient Egypt made significant advances in astronomy, mathematics and medicine.[25] Their development of geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of geometry were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean. The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document that attempts to describe and analyse the brain: it might be seen as the very beginnings of modern neuroscience. However, while Egyptian medicine had some effective practices, it was often ineffective and sometimes harmful. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Nevertheless, it applied the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and, according to G.E.R. Lloyd, played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) also contains evidence of traditional empiricism.
578</h4></p>
579
580
581 <h1><p>Greco-Roman world</h1></p>
582<img src="Greco-Roman world.jpg" style="width:25%">
583<h4><p>In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers).
584The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640–546 BC), dubbed the "father of science", was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Leucippus (5th century BC) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil Democritus and later Epicurus.
585Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the Platonic Academy in 387 BC, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here", and turned out many notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle introduced empiricism and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method. Aristotle also produced many biological writings that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals on Lesbos, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent Islamic and European scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the Scientific Revolution.
586</h4></p>
587<img src="Greco-Roman world2.jpg" style="width:30%">
588<h4><p>Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to approximate the value of π.
589The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research.[37] In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations.[38] Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. According to Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University:
590"Men were weighing for thousands of years before Archimedes worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principles involved. What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent system."
591and again: </h4></p>
592<h4><p>"With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science. Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given an air of modernity. Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived."
593</h4></p>
594<img src="Greco-Roman world3.jpg" style="width:15%">
595<h4>Schematic of the Antikythera mechanism (150–100 BC).
596The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150–100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
597In medicine, Hippocrates (c. 460 BC – c. 370 BC) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, still relevant and in use today. Herophilos (335–280 BC) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system. Galen (129 – c. 200 AD) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgeries— that were not tried again for almost two millennia.
598</h4></p>
599<img src="Greco-Roman world4.jpg" style="width:25%">
600<h4><p>One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements, found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to c. 100 AD.
601In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.
602Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.
603</h4></p>
604
605
606
607 <h1><p>India</h1></p>
608<img src="India.jpg" style="width:20%">
609<h4><p>Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
610Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".
611Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
612Nilakantha Somayaji's astronomical treatise the Tantrasangraha similar in nature to the Tychonic system proposed by Tycho Brahe had been the most accurate astronomical model until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.
613Linguistics: Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India (1st millennium BC) with the analysis of Sanskrit for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was Pāṇini (c. 520–460 BC), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. The grammar of TAMIL language Tolkāppiyam is the most ancient Tamil grammar text and the oldest surviving work of Tamil literature.The surviving manuscripts of the Tolkappiyam consists of three books (atikaram), each with nine chapters (iyal), with a cumulative total of 1,612 sutras in the nūṛpā meter. It is a comprehensive text on grammar, and includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language.
614Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
615Metallurgy: The wootz, crucible and stainless steels were invented in India, and were widely exported in the Classic Mediterranean world. It was known from Pliny the Elder as ferrum indicum. Indian Wootz steel was held in high regard in Roman Empire, was often considered to be the best. After in Middle Age it was imported in Syria to produce with special techniques the "Damascus steel" by the year 1000.
616The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron, and in the preparations of those ingredients along with which it is fused to obtain that kind of soft iron which is usually styled Indian steel (Hindiah). They also have workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world.
617</h4></p>
618<h4><p>—Henry Yule quoted the 12th-century Arab Edrizi.</h4></p>
619
620<h1><p>China</h1></p>
621<img src="China.jpg" style="width:20%">
622<h4><p>Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.
623Although the first attempts at an axiomatisation of geometry appear in the Mohist canon in 330 BC, Liu Hui developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century AD and also calculated pi to 5 significant figures. In 480, Zu Chongzhi improved this by discovering the ratio which remained the most accurate value for 1200 years.
624</h4></p>
625<img src="China2.jpg" style="width:25%">
626<h4><p>One of the star maps from Su Song's Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao published in 1092, featuring a cylindrical projection similar to Mercator, and the corrected position of the pole star thanks to Shen Kuo's astronomical observations.
627Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.
628From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical (Mercator) projection. The use of an armillary sphere is recorded from the 4th century BC and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BC. In 125 AD Zhang Heng used water power to rotate the sphere in real time. This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of the Arab torquetum.
629</h4></p>
630<img src="China3.jpg" style="width:20%">
631<h4><p>A modern replica of Han dynasty polymath scientist Zhang Heng's seismometer of 132 CE
632Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air.See Zhang's seismometer for further details.
633There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing,the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990–1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.
634The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
635However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what we might call "modern science". According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:
636It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The Taoists, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it.
637</h4></p>
638
639
640<h1 class="w3-jumbo"><span class="w3-hide-small"></span>Post-classical Science</h1>
641<h4><p>In the Middle Ages the classical learning continued in three major linguistic cultures and civilizations: Greek (the Byzantine Empire), Arabic (the Islamic world), and Latin (Western Europe).
642</h4></p>
643
644<h1><p>Byzantine Empire</h1></p>
645<img src="Byzantine Empire.jpg" style="width:20%">
646<h4><p>The frontispiece of the Vienna Dioscurides, which shows a set of seven famous physicians
647Because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the intellectual level in the western part of Europe declined in the 400s. In contrast, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks, and preserved and improved the learning.
648While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine and timekeeping.
649In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, Isidore of Miletus compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the Archimedes Palimpsest, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied.
650John Philoponus, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus. The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics. The works of John Philoponus inspired Galileo Galilei ten centuries later.
651The first record of separating conjoined twins took place in the Byzantine Empire in the 900s when the surgeons tried to separate a dead body of a pair of conjoined twins. The result was partly successful as the other twin managed to live for three days. The next recorded case of separating conjoined twins was several centuries later, in 1600s Germany.
652During the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, a number of Greek scholars fled to North Italy in which they fueled the era later commonly known as the "Renaissance” as they brought with them a great deal of classical learning including an understanding of botany, medicine, and zoology. Byzantium also gave the West important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics, and the works of Dioscorides.
653</h4></p>
654
655
656<h1><p>Islamic world</h1></p>
657<img src="Islamic world.jpg" style="width:20%">
658<h4><p>In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
659Scientific method began developing in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.
660In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850) gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several key refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.
661In astronomy, Al-Battani (c. 858–929) improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi,Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.
662Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant and Fielding H. Garrison considered Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Jābir ibn Hayyān (c. 721–815) is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry". The works of Arabic scientists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Persian writers), and later Isaac Newton. The scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.
663Ibn Sina (Avicenna, c. 980–1037) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials.[97] His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
664Scientists from the Islamic world include al-Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (pioneer of surgery), Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (pioneer of Indology, geodesy and anthropology), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (forerunner of social sciences such as demography, cultural history, historiography, philosophy of history and sociology), among many others.
665Islamic science began its decline in the 12th or 13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, and due in part to the 11th–13th century Mongol conquests, during which libraries, observatories, hospitals and universities were destroyed. The end of the Islamic Golden Age is marked by the destruction of the intellectual center of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258.
666</h4></p>
667
668
669<h1><p>Western Europe</h1></p>
670<h4><p>By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made, increasing the food supply and population. Classical Greek texts were translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, stimulating scientific discussion in Western Europe.
671An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. Contact with the Byzantine Empire, and with the Islamic world during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Latin Europe access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Isidore of Miletus, John Philoponus, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."
672In classical antiquity, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned, but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi (c. 1275–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.
673As a result of the Pax Mongolica, Europeans, such as Marco Polo, began to venture further and further east. This led to the increased awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture and civilization within the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England), and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill.
674</h4></p>
675<img src="Western Europe.jpg" style="width:20%">
676<h4><p>Statue of Roger Bacon at the Oxford University Museum.
677At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy in these texts began to be extended by scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's thesis is that Stephen Tempier - the Bishop of Paris - Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the mid-late Middle Ages saw important scientific developments.
678The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham emphasised the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.
679In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as algebra to propagate more rapidly. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed.
680</h4></p>
681
682
683<h1><p>Impact of science in Europe</h1></p>
684<img src="Impact of science in Europe.jpg" style="width:20%">
685<h4><p>The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century Scholasticism. The Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).[129] Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.
686</h4></p>
687<img src="Impact of science in Europe2.jpg" style="width:20%">
688<h4><p>The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.
689Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Edmond Halley, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, and Thomas Hobbes. The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.
690</h4></p>
691
692
693<h1><p>Age of Enlightenment</h1></p>
694<img src="Age of Enlightenment.jpg" style="width:50%">
695<h4><p>Alessandro Volta demonstrates the first electrical cell to Napoleon in 1801.
696The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century brought decisive steps towards modern science, which accelerated during the 18th century. Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783). Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie, published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience.
697</h4></p>
698<img src="Age of Enlightenment2.jpg" style="width:45%">
699<h4><p>The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire). The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.
700</h4></p>
701
702<h1><p>Romanticism in Science</h1></p>
703<h4><p>The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880. </h4></p>
704
705
706<h1><p> Eurocentrism in Scientific history </h1></p>
707<h4><p>Eurocentrism in scientific history are historical accounts written about the development of modern science that attribute all scholarly, technological, and philosophical gains to Europe and marginalize outside contributions. The Scientific Revolution in Europe during the 16th-18th centuries was the period of human advancement into modern science by disproving the Aristotelian view of natural sciences and philosophy through proofs of calculations. Until Joseph Needham's book series Science and Civilisation in China began in 1954, many historians would write about modern science solely as a European achievement with no significant contributions form civilizations other than the Greeks. Recent historical writings have argued that there was significant influence and contribution from Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Arabic, Indian, and Chinese astronomy and mathematics.
708In contrast to the Eurocentric view, historians argue evidence of east Asian influence in the scientific revolution. The German astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus's is credited to have begun the Scientific Revolution with his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium which used calculations of Islamic astronomers. His findings were focused on the earth's rotation on its axis every twenty-four hours and its orbit around the sun every 365¼ days. These findings lead Copernicus's heliocentric system; knowledge known to Chinese astronomers based on their understanding of heavenly bodies moving against the path of the sun and the pole star, such as comets. His heliocentric planetary theory was published in 1543, the same year the Greek works of Archimedes were translated from Arabic into Latin.The change in philosophical mindset as well as astronomical improvements gained by the Jesuits research in China is used as evidence to argue for its influence in Copernican work as well as Arab calculations and translations of Greek texts.
709</h4></p>
710
711 <h1 class="w3-jumbo"><span class="w3-hide-small"></span>Modern Science</h1>
712<h4><p>With the scientific revolution, paradigms established in the time of classical antiquity were replaced with those of scientists like Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton. During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways that continued through the 20th century. As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states. </h4></p>
713
714
715<h1><p>Natural Sciences</h1></p>
716<h2><p>Physics</h2></p>
717<img src="Physics.jpg" style="width:20%">
718<h4><p>The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. William Gilbert did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic. </h4></p>
719<img src="Physics2.jpg" style="width:20%">
720<h4><p>In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.
721During the late 18th and early 19th century, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Luigi Galvani, Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm, and others. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations).
722The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.
723</h4></p>
724<img src="Physics3.jpg" style="width:20%">
725<h4><p>The atomic bomb ushered in "Big Science" in physics.
726In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Around this time, Chien-Shiung Wu was recruited by the Manhattan Project to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by Gaseous diffusion. She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics.Wu designed an experiment (see Wu experiment) that enabled theoretical physicists Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel Prize in 1957.
727</h4></p>
728
729
730<h1><p>Chemistry</h1></p>
731<img src="Chemistry.jpg" style="width:20%">
732<h4><p>Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining.[145] A decisive moment came when "chemistry" was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier ("father of modern chemistry") on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.
733The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.
734</h4></p>
735
736<h1><p>Geology</h1></p>
737<img src="Geology.jpg" style="width:20%">
738<h4><p>Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031–1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.
739Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.
740</h4></p>
741<img src="Geology2.jpg" style="width:20%">
742<h4><p>Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker,Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.
743Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.
744Geologists' embrace of plate tectonics became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with meteorology and oceanography as one of the "earth sciences", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets.
745</h4></p>
746
747<h1><p>Astronomy</h1></p>
748<img src="Astronomy.jpg" style="width:20%">
749<h4><p>Aristarchus of Samos published work on how to determine the sizes and distances of the Sun and the Moon, and Eratosthenes used this work to figure the size of the Earth. Hipparchus later discovered the precession of the Earth.
750Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an asteroid (1 Ceres) in 1801, and the discovery of Neptune in 1846.
751In 1925, Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin determined that stars were composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.She was dissuaded by astronomer Henry Norris Russell from publishing this finding in her Ph.D.thesis because of the widely held belief that stars had the same composition as the Earth.[148] However, four years later, in 1929, Henry Norris Russell came to the same conclusion through different reasoning and the discovery was eventually accepted.[148]
752George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Herman had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 3 Kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs radiotelescope (the Holmdel Horn Antenna), which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the age of the universe.
753Supernova SN1987A was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for neutrino astronomy, by the solar neutrino detectors at Kamiokande. But the solar neutrino flux was a fraction of its theoretically expected value. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the standard model for particle physics.
754</h4></p>
755
756
757<h1><p>Biology and Medicine</h1></p>
758<img src="Biology and Medicine.jpg" style="width:15%">
759<h4><p>William Harvey published De Motu Cordis in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of vertebrate circulatory systems. He identified the central role of the heart, arteries, and veins in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of Galen's pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions. The history of early modern biology and medicine is often told through the search for the seat of the soul. Galen in his descriptions of his foundational work in medicine presents the distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves using the vocabulary of the soul.
760In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth.
761</h4></p>
762<img src="Biology and Medicine2.jpg" style="width:25%">
763<h4><p>This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.
764Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the English naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. He proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).
765</h4></p>
766
767
768<h1><p>Ecology</h1></p>
769<img src="Ecology.jpg" style="width:20%">
770<h4><p>The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. </h4></p>
771
772<h1><p>Social Sciences</h1></p>
773<h4><p>Successful use of the scientific method in the physical sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor. From this effort the social sciences have been developed. </h4></p>
774
775<h1><p>Political Science</h1></p>
776<h4><p>Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences.However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.
777In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.
778An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."
779During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.
780With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action.[161][citation needed] During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.
781In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle's works.
782During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations.[citation needed] In particular, the study of statistics, to study the subjects of the state, has been applied to polling and voting.
783In the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines including rational choice theory, voting theory, game theory (also used in economics), psephology, political geography/geopolitics, political psychology/political sociology, political economy, policy analysis, public administration, comparative political analysis and peace studies/conflict analysis.
784</h4></p>
785
786<h1><p>Geography</h1></p>
787<h4><p>The history of geography includes many histories of geography which have differed over time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has become a distinct academic discipline. 'Geography' derives from the Greek γεωγραφία – geographia, a literal translation of which would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes (276–194 BC). However, there is evidence for recognizable practices of geography, such as cartography (or map-making) prior to the use of the term geography. </h4></p>
788
789<h1><p>Linguistics</h1></p>
790<h4><p>Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.</h4></p>
791
792
793<h1><p>Economics</h1></p>
794<img src="Economics.jpg" style="width:20%">
795<h4><p>The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian School responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.
796In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.
797</h4></p>
798
799<img src="Economics2.jpg" style="width:20%">
800<h4><p>Other modern schools of economic thought are New Classical economics and New Keynesian economics. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government.
801The above "history of economics" reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the "Wealth of Nations", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.[clarification needed] It is played down that this "invisible hand" acts only "frequently" and that it is "no part of his [the individual's] intentions" because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his" invention. That this "invisible hand" prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry" is cleansed—often without indication that part of the citation is truncated.[163] The opening passage of the "Wealth" containing Smith's message is never mentioned as it cannot be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth" depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.
802</h4></p>
803
804
805
806<h1><p>Psychology</h1></p>
807<h4><p>The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.
808The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against Edward Titchener's atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve.
809The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.
810</h4></p>
811
812
813<h1><p>Sociology</h1></p>
814<h4><p>Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist.The modern sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.
815In particular, just Auguste Comte, illustrated with his work the transition from a theological to a metaphysical stage and, from this, to a positive stage. Comte took care of the classification of the sciences as well as a transit of humanity towards a situation of progress attributable to a re-examination of nature according to the affirmation of 'sociality' as the basis of the scientifically interpreted society
816American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.
817</h4></p>
818
819
820<h1><p>Anthropology</h1></p>
821<h4><p>Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behaviour. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part.
822At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on colonial encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as scientific racism.
823During the late 19th-century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on anthropometrical techniques) and those of an "ethnological" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between physical anthropology and cultural anthropology, the latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas.
824In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures" (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study).
825The emergence of paleoanthropology, a scientific discipline which draws on the methodologies of paleontology, physical anthropology and ethology, among other disciplines, and increasing in scope and momentum from the mid-20th century, continues to yield further insights into human origins, evolution, genetic and cultural heritage, and perspectives on the contemporary human predicament as well.
826</h4></p>
827
828<h1><p>Emerging disciplines</h1></p>
829<h4><p>During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged. Examples include:
830Communication studies combines animal communication, information theory, marketing, public relations, telecommunications and other forms of communication.
831Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.
832Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field. It draws upon the disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth sciences, ecology, geography, mathematics, and physics.
833Materials science has its roots in metallurgy, mineralogy, and crystallography. It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, glass, plastics, semiconductors, and composite materials.
834Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary branch of science that combines physiology, neuroanatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, mathematical modeling and psychology to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of neurons, glia, nervous systems and neural circuits.[166]
835Metascience (also known as meta-research) is the use of scientific methodology to study science itself. Metascience seeks to increase the quality of research while reducing waste. The replication crisis is the result of metascientific research.
836</h4></p>
837
838<h1><p>Academic study</h1></p>
839<h4><p>As an academic field, history of science and technology began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.
840The history of mathematics, history of technology, and history of philosophy are distinct areas of research and are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to but distinct from natural science (at least in the modern conception). Technology is likewise closely related to but clearly differs from the search for empirical truth.
841History of science is an academic discipline, with an international community of specialists. Main professional organizations for this field include the History of Science Society, the British Society for the History of Science, and the European Society for the History of Science.
842</h4></p>
843
844<h1><p>Theories and Sociology of the history of Science</h1></p>
845<h4><p>Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends.The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.
846Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals.It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt.The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.
847A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been the nature of theory change in science. Karl Popper argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; Thomas Kuhn, that scientific knowledge moves through "paradigm shifts" and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul Feyerabend, that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive and that there can be no demarcation in terms of method between science and any other form of investigation.
848The mid-20th century saw a series of studies relying to the role of science in a social context, starting from Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part sociologically determined and that positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, the history of science may be seen in more nuanced terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science. "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific."
849Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge. The Science wars of the 1990 were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies. However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant?"
850</h4></p>
851
852<h1><p>Plight of many Scientific innovators</h1></p>
853<h4><p>One recurring observation in the history of science involves the struggle for recognition of first-rate scientists working on the periphery of the scientific establishment. For instance, the great physicist Lord Rayleigh looked back on John James Waterston's seminal paper on the kinetic theory of gases. The history of the neglect of Waterston's path-breaking article, Rayleigh felt, suggests that "a young author who believes himself capable of great things would usually do well to secure favourable recognition of the scientific world . . . before embarking upon higher flights."
854William Harvey's experiences led him to an even more pessimistic view:
855"But what remains to be said about the quantity and source of the blood which thus passes, is of so novel and unheard-of character that I not only fear injury to myself from the envy of a few, but I tremble lest I have mankind at large for my enemies, so much doth wont and custom, that become as another nature, and doctrine once sown and that hath struck deep root, and respect for antiquity, influence all men."
856In more general terms, Robert K. Merton remarks that "the history of science abounds in instances of basic papers having been written by comparatively unknown scientists, only to be rejected or neglected for years."
857</h4></p>
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969<h1>What is the full form of “science”?</h1>
970<h2>Ans:-
971</h2><h2>
972S- systmatic &
973</h2><h2>
974C-comprehensive
975</h2><h2>
976I- Investigation
977</h2><h2>
978E- & Exploration
979</h2><h2>
980N- of Nature
981</h2><h2>
982C- Causes &
983</h2><h2>
984E- Effect
985</h2>
986<p>
987</h2><h2>1.Water can boil and freeze at the same time.</h2><h2>
988</h2><h2>2. Lasers can get trapped in a waterfall.</h2><h2>
989</h2><h2>3. We've got spacecraft hurtling towards the edge of our Solar System really, really fast.</h2><h2>
990</h2><h2>4. An egg looks like a crazy jellyfish underwater.</h2><h2>
991</h2><h2>5. You can prove Pythagoras' theorem with fluid.</h2><h2>
992</h2><h2>6. This is what happens when a black hole swallows a star.</h2><h2>
993</h2><h2>7. You CAN see without your glasses.</h2><h2>
994</h2><h2>8. This is how a face forms in the womb.</h2><h2>
995</h2><h2>9. Popping your knuckles isn't necessarily bad for you.</h2><h2>
996</h2><h2>10. A single solar flare can release the equivalent energy of millions of 100-megaton atomic bombs.</h2><h2>
997</h2><h2>11. Cats always land on their feet, thanks to physics.</h2><h2>
998</h2><h2>12. You'd be better off surviving a grenade on land rather than underwater.</h2><h2>
999</h2><h2>13. If you spin a ball as you drop it, it flies.</h2><h2>
1000</h2><h2>14. Babies have around 100 more bones than adults.</h2><h2>
1001</h2><h2>15.The Eiffel Tower can be 15 cm taller during the summer.</h2><h2>
1002</h2><h2>16. 20% of Earth’s oxygen is produced by the Amazon rainforest.</h2><h2>
1003</h2><h2>17.Some metals are so reactive that they explode on contact with water.</h2><h2>
1004</h2><h2>18.A teaspoonful of neutron star would weigh 6 billion tons.</h2><h2>
1005</h2><h2>19.Hawaii moves 7.5cm closer to Alaska every year.</h2><h2>
1006</h2><h2>20.Chalk is made from trillions of microscopic plankton fossils.</h2><h2>
1007</h2><h2>21. In 2.3 billion years it will be too hot for life to exist on Earth.</h2><h2>
1008</h2><h2>22.Polar bears are nearly undetectable by infrared cameras.</h2><h2>
1009</h2><h2>23. It takes 8 minutes, 19 seconds for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth.</h2><h2>
1010</h2><h2>24.If you took out all the empty space in our atoms, the human race could fit in the volume of a sugar cube.</h2><h2>
1011</h2><h2>25.Stomach acid is strong enough to dissolve stainless steel.</h2><h2>
1012</h2><h2>26.The Earth is a giant magnet.</h2><h2>
1013</h2><h2>27. Venus is the only planet to spin clockwise.</h2><h2>
1014</h2><h2>28.A flea can accelerate faster than the Space Shuttle.</h2><h2>
1015</h2><h2>29.The human stomach can dissolve razor blades.</h2><h2>
1016</h2><h2>30.A laser can get trapped in water.</h2><h2>
1017</h2><h2>31.Earth’s oxygen is produced by the ocean.</h2><h2>
1018</h2><h2>32.Animals use Earth’s magnetic field for orientation.</h2><h2>
1019</h2><h2>33.A cloud can weigh over a million pounds.</h2><h2>
1020</h2><h2>34.Soil is alive and well. </h2><h2>
1021</h2><h2>35.Rats laugh when being tickled.</h2><h2>
1022</h2><h2>36.There are more trees on Earth than stars in our galaxy.</h2><h2>
1023</h2><h2>37.Oxygen has a color.</h2><h2>
1024</h2><h2>38.Only two letters don’t appear in the periodic table.</h2><h2>
1025</h2><h2>39.Bananas are radioactive.</h2><h2>
1026</h2><h2>40.Hot water freezes faster than cold water.</h2><h2>
1027</h2><h2>41.Cold water heats up faster than hot water.</h2><h2>
1028</h2><h2>42.Humans are related to fungi.</h2><h2>
1029</h2><h2>43.But don’t worry—we have a lot of DNA.</h2><h2>
1030</h2><h2>44.It can rain diamonds on other planets.</h2><h2>
1031</h2><h2>45.You can make balls fly.</h2><h2>
1032</h2><h2>46.Water can exist in three states at once.</h2><h2>
1033</h2><h2>47.Only one type of mammal has wings.</h2><h2>
1034</h2><h2>48.Helium can also work against gravity.</h2><h2>
1035</h2><h2>49.It’s impossible to burp in space.</h2><h2>
1036</h2><h2>50.We have no idea what most of the universe looks like.</h2><h2>
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1045 <i class="fa fa-youtube w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1046 <i class="fa fa-instagram w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1047 <i class="fa fa-pinterest-p w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1048 <i class="fa fa-twitter w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1049 <i class="fa fa-linkedin w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1050 <!-- End footer -->
1051 </footer>
1052
1053<!-- END PAGE CONTENT -->
1054</div>
1055
1056</body>
1057</html>
1058Scientific Book:-
1059
1060
1061<!DOCTYPE html>
1062<html>
1063<title>Science Factory</title>
1064<meta charset="UTF-8">
1065<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
1066<link rel = "icon" href ="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Logo.jpg" type = "image/x-icon">
1067<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.w3schools.com/w3css/4/w3.css">
1068<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Montserrat">
1069<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">
1070<style>
1071body, h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {font-family: "Montserrat", sans-serif}
1072.w3-row-padding img {margin-bottom: 12px}
1073/* Set the width of the sidebar to 120px */
1074.w3-sidebar {width: 120px;background: #222;}
1075/* Add a left margin to the "page content" that matches the width of the sidebar (120px) */
1076#main {margin-left: 120px}
1077/* Remove margins from "page content" on small screens */
1078@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) {#main {margin-left: 0}}
1079</style>
1080<body class="w3-black">
1081
1082<!-- Icon Bar (Sidebar - hidden on small screens) -->
1083<nav class="w3-sidebar w3-bar-block w3-small w3-hide-small w3-center">
1084 <!-- Avatar image in top left corner -->
1085 <img src="Logo.jpg" style="width:100%">
1086
1087 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Main%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1088 <i class="a fa fa-home w3-xxlarge"></i>
1089 <p>HOME</p>
1090 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/History%20of%20Science%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1091 <i class="fa fa-history w3-xxlarge"></i>
1092 <p>History of Science</p>
1093 </a>
1094 <a href="#file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Story%20of%20Scientific%20Invention.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1095 <i class="fa fa-youtube-play w3-xxlarge"></i>
1096 <p>Story of Scientific Invention </p>
1097 </a>
1098 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Lab.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1099 <i class="f fa fa-cogs w3-xxlarge"></i>
1100 <p>My Lab</p>
1101 </a>
1102 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Training.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1103 <i class="fa fa-graduation-cap w3-xxlarge"></i>
1104 <p>Scientific Training</p>
1105 </a>
1106 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Interesting%20Information%20About%20Science.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1107 <i class="fa fa-eye w3-xxlarge"></i>
1108 <p>Interesting Information About Science</p>
1109 </a>
1110 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Competition.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1111 <i class="fa fa-pencil w3-xxlarge"></i>
1112 <p>Scientific Competition</p>
1113 </a>
1114 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Book.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1115 <i class="fa fa-book w3-xxlarge"></i>
1116 <p>Scientific Book</p>
1117 </a>
1118<a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Dictionary.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1119 <i class="fa fa-search w3-xxlarge"></i>
1120 <p>Scientific Dictionary</p>
1121 </a>
1122 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science Factory_331340/Scientific FAQ.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1123 <i class="fa fa-question w3-xxlarge"></i>
1124 <p>Scientific FAQ</p>
1125 </a>
1126 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Account.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1127 <i class="fa fa-address-book-o w3-xxlarge"></i>
1128 <p>My Account</p>
1129 </a>
1130</nav>
1131
1132
1133Inter
1134<!-- Page Content -->
1135<div class="w3-padding-large" id="main">
1136 <!-- Header/Home -->
1137 <header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
1138
1139
1140
1141<h2>Primary Books</h2>
1142
1143<p>
1144 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Rj7Ux5AZQFrSHbtSzOl5ByQjQlp10wf8/view?usp=sharing">
1145 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 3 science book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1146</a>
1147</p>
1148
1149
1150
1151<p>
1152 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-FxPsXMFOX-9pOj_t0aPNADAWUm8Q4sE/view?usp=sharing">
1153 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 4 science book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1154</a>
1155</p>
1156
1157<p>
1158 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1KV0inN91WP7o8DjeFR7_vgJYf25UX-w4/view?usp=sharing">
1159 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 5 science book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1160</a>
1161</p>
1162
1163
1164<h2>Junior Books</h2>
1165
1166
1167<p>
1168 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Rj7Ux5AZQFrSHbtSzOl5ByQjQlp10wf8/view?usp=sharing">
1169 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 6 science book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1170</a>
1171</p>
1172
1173
1174<p>
1175 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1JF0iDfWyVpF4hs5wBvtsAIqP5h3RGCvR/view?usp=sharing">
1176 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 7 science book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1177</a>
1178</p>
1179
1180<p>
1181 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1q0eIZCYnFVTLN4cigXtSW5Ksn6In-Uck/view?usp=sharing">
1182 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 8 science book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1183</a>
1184</p>
1185<h2>Secondary Books</h2>
1186<p>
1187 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1pnVIPeqezqraTzYTbfKyk4gb03IfYMDs/view?usp=sharing">
1188 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 9-10 physics book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1189</a>
1190</p>
1191
1192<p>
1193 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1pkF6e2U6SVaIwq51CbcR6tmXJr8CRSo9/view?usp=sharing">
1194 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 9-10 chemistry book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1195</a>
1196</p>
1197
1198<p>
1199 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1pekDxLO-O9TU8HgQXbQs0RlOItPDQPN7/view?usp=sharing">
1200 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Class 9-10 biology book.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1201</a>
1202
1203
1204<h2>Science Fiction</h2>
1205
1206<p>
1207 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/12m_cx6NGseGEQBKRxduadtmYQPI2kBfa/view?usp=sharing">
1208 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="15 OMeGa Point.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1209</a>
1210
1211<p>
1212 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1EDzEyBcogs--BhwpRZBfPkFYme9vxeZi/view?usp=sharing">
1213 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Serina.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1214</a>
1215
1216<p>
1217 <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1cpSGPh1H8vtijaNPdQ8gvByPMxYEN-Dx/view?usp=sharing">
1218 <img border="0" alt="Science Factory" src="Neurone Onuronon.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1219</a>
1220 <!-- Footer -->
1221 <footer class="w3-content w3-padding-64 w3-text-grey w3-xlarge">
1222 <i class="fa fa-facebook-official w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1223 <i class="fa fa-youtube w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1224 <i class="fa fa-instagram w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1225 <i class="fa fa-pinterest-p w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1226 <i class="fa fa-twitter w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1227 <i class="fa fa-linkedin w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1228 <!-- End footer -->
1229 </footer>
1230
1231<!-- END PAGE CONTENT -->
1232</div>
1233
1234</body>
1235</html>
1236
1237
1238Scientific Competition:-
1239<!DOCTYPE html>
1240<html>
1241<title>Science Factory</title>
1242<meta charset="UTF-8">
1243<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
1244<link rel = "icon" href ="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Logo.jpg" type = "image/x-icon">
1245<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.w3schools.com/w3css/4/w3.css">
1246<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Montserrat">
1247<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">
1248<style>
1249body, h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {font-family: "Montserrat", sans-serif}
1250.w3-row-padding img {margin-bottom: 12px}
1251/* Set the width of the sidebar to 120px */
1252.w3-sidebar {width: 120px;background: #222;}
1253/* Add a left margin to the "page content" that matches the width of the sidebar (120px) */
1254#main {margin-left: 120px}
1255/* Remove margins from "page content" on small screens */
1256@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) {#main {margin-left: 0}}
1257</style>
1258<body class="w3-black">
1259
1260<!-- Icon Bar (Sidebar - hidden on small screens) -->
1261<nav class="w3-sidebar w3-bar-block w3-small w3-hide-small w3-center">
1262 <!-- Avatar image in top left corner -->
1263 <img src="Logo.jpg" style="width:100%">
1264
1265
1266 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Main%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1267 <i class="a fa fa-home w3-xxlarge"></i>
1268 <p>HOME</p>
1269 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/History%20of%20Science%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1270 <i class="fa fa-history w3-xxlarge"></i>
1271 <p>History of Science</p>
1272 </a>
1273 <a href="#file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Story%20of%20Scientific%20Invention.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1274 <i class="fa fa-youtube-play w3-xxlarge"></i>
1275 <p>Story of Scientific Invention </p>
1276 </a>
1277 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Lab.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1278 <i class="f fa fa-cogs w3-xxlarge"></i>
1279 <p>My Lab</p>
1280 </a>
1281 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Training.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1282 <i class="fa fa-graduation-cap w3-xxlarge"></i>
1283 <p>Scientific Training</p>
1284 </a>
1285 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Interesting%20Information%20About%20Science.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1286 <i class="fa fa-eye w3-xxlarge"></i>
1287 <p>Interesting Information About Science</p>
1288 </a>
1289 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Competition.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1290 <i class="fa fa-pencil w3-xxlarge"></i>
1291 <p>Scientific Competition</p>
1292 </a>
1293 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Book.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1294 <i class="fa fa-book w3-xxlarge"></i>
1295 <p>Scientific Book</p>
1296 </a>
1297<a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Dictionary.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1298 <i class="fa fa-search w3-xxlarge"></i>
1299 <p>Scientific Dictionary</p>
1300 </a>
1301 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science Factory_331340/Scientific FAQ.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1302 <i class="fa fa-question w3-xxlarge"></i>
1303 <p>Scientific FAQ</p>
1304 </a>
1305 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Account.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1306 <i class="fa fa-address-book-o w3-xxlarge"></i>
1307 <p>My Account</p>
1308 </a>
1309</nav>
1310
1311<header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
1312<a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Bangla4%20page.html">
1313 <button type="button">Translate in bangla</button>
1314</a>
1315
1316 <!-- Page Content -->
1317<div class="w3-padding-large" id="main">
1318 <!-- Header/Home -->
1319 <header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
1320 <h1 class="w3-jumbo"><span class="w3-hide-small"></span>Science Factory</h1>
1321 <h4><p>Back to School</h4></p>
1322 <h2>(Competition)</h2>
1323 </header>
1324<header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
1325<h2>Happening Now</h2>
1326<header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
1327<h2>Children Science Congress</h2>
1328 <p>
1329 <a href="http://cscongress.net/">
1330 <img border="0" alt="" src="cscongress.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1331</a>
1332</p>
1333<header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
1334<h2>Biology Olympiad</h2>
1335 <p>
1336 <a href="https://bdbo.org/reg/">
1337 <img border="0" alt="" src="biology olympiad.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1338</a>
1339</p>
1340<h2>Economic Olympiad</h2>
1341 <p>
1342 <a href="https://www.facebook.com/BdEO.Official/?__xts__[0]=68.ARAMdRUG-ZN3cq07qvaX660BMqkpvQmMAyEgqyuugQ8Go5HSaOHus9xSuun_VpfS2LoBUScF0To6A_7lexzmWbh7oh9CSmVWWtoNPw9Gc4ZpaIucKgfPiN-0zWisNnPqrlqkdhqpBbpxOi2uQDa3VP5uZ-nS5iSg1pTKygek7Vs-o9C4sJA9F7BMIgUXaN_iC0D-F8osxKcXGZrfKg4lbsMeU63adzAnL1Wj3fA9DksiZdyX11032f0K0QhzR579de3LeoqwqpbweIExNlJX0lUwQv8H9qzTpvpAjXYCDqvX0bRaUPv9LQAPVLRBX8kzpTx9qS2Ot8nyvreWer042BY&__xts__[1]=68.ARAMjyEJqBXk3EAnm-Vuhg4MA3g8X2uaO6mt8wzACuOCfTDtognK2pjM-R62TH-vl15aSgwDnZ0uhRCNlUsyFts2vbRB5jeXzZNkaRP06lwl3TuuQ1SHf4p_evdz7vz345x57PpVhupmuwboT8cBF3OesP_Hh8SvZKHrqDuSNVR7NjkPByJLy86JVpFaiyzRLGYzuHa4WNfg3n5HjGkSke6iB0dVTb5HmQsluuie0qCr_ID77M6kIyc1OO5pABrAGBNRwRAjw2vvPBW5w_kexjuf-OP8o3aWXdMgfvHJwSFbdIITGUNUtYug7SWPQeqH1CaQx-0lqoSas0Mju3ILdf0">
1343 <img border="0" alt="" src="Economic olympiad.png" width="15%" height="15%">
1344</a>
1345</p>
1346
1347<h2>Marketing Olympiad</h2>
1348 <p>
1349 <a href="https://wearepositivebangladesh.org/2019/12/12/marketing-olympiad-2020/">
1350 <img border="0" alt="" src="Marketing olympiad.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1351</a>
1352</p>
1353
1354
1355 <p>
1356<h1>Online Quiz</h1>
1357<h3>(Powered by Science Factory)</h3>
1358 <a href="https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeASnNKOve0ymIcRtG64y_wxYjR_G7Ky98Yg6meEK1Ig2w2CA/viewform">
1359 <img border="0" alt="" src="online quiz.jpg" width="15%" height="15%">
1360</a>
1361</p>
1362
1363
1364
1365 <!-- Footer -->
1366 <footer class="w3-content w3-padding-64 w3-text-grey w3-xlarge">
1367 <i class="fa fa-facebook-official w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1368 <i class="fa fa-youtube w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1369 <i class="fa fa-instagram w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1370 <i class="fa fa-pinterest-p w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1371 <i class="fa fa-twitter w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1372 <i class="fa fa-linkedin w3-hover-opacity"></i>
1373 <!-- End footer -->
1374 </footer>
1375
1376<!-- END PAGE CONTENT -->
1377</div>
1378
1379</body>
1380</html>
1381
1382Scientific Dictionary:-
1383<!DOCTYPE html>
1384<html>
1385<title>Science Factory</title>
1386<meta charset="UTF-8">
1387<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
1388<link rel = "icon" href ="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Logo.jpg" type = "image/x-icon">
1389<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.w3schools.com/w3css/4/w3.css">
1390<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Montserrat">
1391<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">
1392<style>
1393body, h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {font-family: "Montserrat", sans-serif}
1394.w3-row-padding img {margin-bottom: 12px}
1395/* Set the width of the sidebar to 120px */
1396.w3-sidebar {width: 120px;background: #222;}
1397/* Add a left margin to the "page content" that matches the width of the sidebar (120px) */
1398#main {margin-left: 120px}
1399/* Remove margins from "page content" on small screens */
1400@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) {#main {margin-left: 0}}
1401</style>
1402<body class="w3-black">
1403
1404<!-- Icon Bar (Sidebar - hidden on small screens) -->
1405<nav class="w3-sidebar w3-bar-block w3-small w3-hide-small w3-center">
1406 <!-- Avatar image in top left corner -->
1407 <img src="Logo.jpg" style="width:100%">
1408
1409
1410 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Main%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1411 <i class="a fa fa-home w3-xxlarge"></i>
1412 <p>HOME</p>
1413 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/History%20of%20Science%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1414 <i class="fa fa-history w3-xxlarge"></i>
1415 <p>History of Science</p>
1416 </a>
1417 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Story%20of%20Scientific%20Invention.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1418 <i class="fa fa-youtube-play w3-xxlarge"></i>
1419 <p>Story of Scientific Invention </p>
1420 </a>
1421 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Lab.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1422 <i class="f fa fa-cogs w3-xxlarge"></i>
1423 <p>My Lab</p>
1424 </a>
1425 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Training.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1426 <i class="fa fa-graduation-cap w3-xxlarge"></i>
1427 <p>Scientific Training</p>
1428 </a>
1429 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Interesting%20Information%20About%20Science.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1430 <i class="fa fa-eye w3-xxlarge"></i>
1431 <p>Interesting Information About Science</p>
1432 </a>
1433 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Competition.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
1434 <i class="fa fa-pencil w3-xxlarge"></i>
1435 <p>Scientific Competition</p>
1436 </a>
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1443 <p>Scientific Dictionary</p>
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1461 <h1 class="w3-jumbo"><span class="w3-hide-small"></span>Science Factory</h1>
1462 <h4><p>Back to School</h4></p>
1463 </header>
1464
1465<a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Bangla%20page.html">
1466 <button type="button">Translate in bangla</button>
1467</a>
1468
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1470 <input type="text" placeholder="Search..">
1471 <button type="submit"><i class="fa fa-search"></i></button>
1472
1473
1474<h1><p>A</h1></p>
1475<h4><p>
1476
1477ABIOTIC STRESS :
1478<h4><p>
1479The non-living environmental factors like drought, extreme cold, heat, high winds that has negative effect on the organisms in a specific environment is known as the abiotic stress.
1480</h4></p>
1481
1482<h4><p>
1483ABSOLUTE ZERO :
1484
1485The lowest theoretical temperature where all the molecular activities cease to continue. The absolute temperature is 0K= -273.16°C
1486</h4></p>
1487<h4><p>
1488ABZYME :
1489
1490An antibody that has an ability to catalyze a chemical reaction by binding and stabilizing the state of transition of an intermediate compound that is selected to carry out an biological reaction is known as an abzyme.
1491</h4></p>
1492<h4><p>
1493ACCELERATION :
1494
1495The rate at which the velocity vector changes is known as acceleration. The SI unit of acceleration is metre per second 2
1496</h4></p>
1497<h4><p>
1498ACCRETION :
1499
1500Accumulation of dust and gas into larger bodies.
1501</h4></p>
1502<h4><p>
1503ACHONDRITE :
1504
1505The stony meteorites without chondrules that have been crystallized from magma are known as achondrite.
1506</h4></p>
1507<h4><p>
1508ACID :
1509
1510A sour tasting, corrosive substance - the opposite of a base substance. Acidic solutions will turn a litmus red.
1511</h4></p>
1512<h4><p>
1513ACID RAIN :
1514
1515Rainfall with a greater acidity than normal.
1516</h4></p>
1517<h4><p>
1518ADSORPTION :
1519
1520Process that occurs when a gas or liquid solute accumulates on the surface of a solid or, more rarely, a liquid (adsorbent), forming a molecular or atomic film (the adsorbate). It is different from absorption, in which a substance diffuses into a liquid or solid to form a solution.
1521</h4></p>
1522<h4><p>
1523ADULT STEM CELL :
1524
1525A specialized cell that is needed for growth, wound healing and tissue regeneration. Adult stem cells are found in all tissues and organs of animals and plants.
1526</h4></p>
1527<h4><p>
1528
1529
1530ABIOTIC STRESS :
1531
1532The non-living environmental factors like drought, extreme cold, heat, high winds that has negative effect on the organisms in a specific environment is known as the abiotic stress.
1533</h4></p>
1534<h4><p>
1535ABSOLUTE ZERO :
1536
1537The lowest theoretical temperature where all the molecular activities cease to continue. The absolute temperature is 0K= -273.16°C
1538</h4></p>
1539<h4><p>
1540ABZYME :
1541
1542An antibody that has an ability to catalyze a chemical reaction by binding and stabilizing the state of transition of an intermediate compound that is selected to carry out an biological reaction is known as an abzyme.
1543</h4></p>
1544<h4><p>
1545ACCELERATION :
1546
1547The rate at which the velocity vector changes is known as acceleration. The SI unit of acceleration is metre per second 2
1548</h4></p>
1549<h4><p>
1550ACCRETION :
1551
1552Accumulation of dust and gas into larger bodies.
1553</h4></p>
1554<h4><p>
1555ACHONDRITE :
1556
1557The stony meteorites without chondrules that have been crystallized from magma are known as achondrite.
1558</h4></p>
1559<h4><p>
1560ACID :
1561
1562A sour tasting, corrosive substance - the opposite of a base substance. Acidic solutions will turn a litmus red.
1563</h4></p>
1564<h4><p>
1565ACID RAIN :
1566
1567Rainfall with a greater acidity than normal.
1568</h4></p>
1569<h4><p>
1570ADSORPTION :
1571
1572Process that occurs when a gas or liquid solute accumulates on the surface of a solid or, more rarely, a liquid (adsorbent), forming a molecular or atomic film (the adsorbate). It is different from absorption, in which a substance diffuses into a liquid or solid to form a solution.
1573</h4></p>
1574<h4><p>
1575ADULT STEM CELL :
1576
1577A specialized cell that is needed for growth, wound healing and tissue regeneration. Adult stem cells are found in all tissues and organs of animals and plants.
1578</h4></p>
1579<h4><p>
1580
1581
1582AEROSOLS :
1583
1584Liquid or solid particles that are suspended in air or a gas. Also referred to as particulate matter.
1585</h4></p>
1586<h4><p>
1587
1588AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS :
1589
1590Highly purified form of agar gelled into a matrix to separate large DNA and RNA molecules that range from over 20,000 nucleotides.
1591</h4></p>
1592<h4><p>
1593
1594ALBEDO :
1595
1596The fraction of electromagnetic radiation reflected from the surface of a satellite.
1597</h4></p>
1598<h4><p>
1599
1600ALBEDO FEATURE :
1601
1602A dark or light marking on the surface of an object that might not be a geological or topographical feature.
1603</h4></p>
1604<h4><p>
1605
1606ALKALI :
1607
1608A substance having marked basic properties (i.e. substance with properties of a base).
1609</h4></p>
1610<h4><p>
1611
1612ALLELE :
1613
1614The genetic variant of a gene. A gene can be found in different variants in a population, even in the same individual. Alleles are responsible for the different traits of certain characteristics, such as eye and hair color in animals, and flower and seed color in plants. Alleles are also responsible for genetic diseases.
1615</h4></p>
1616<h4><p>
1617
1618ALLOCTHONOUS :
1619
1620(1) Material that is formed or introduced from somewhere other than the place it is presently found. (2) Fragmented rock thrown out of the crater during its formation that either falls back to partly fill the crater or blankets its outer flanks after the impact event.
1621</h4></p>
1622<h4><p>
1623
1624ALPHA CENTAURI :
1625
1626The closest bright star to our solar system.
1627</h4></p>
1628<h4><p>
1629
1630ALTERNATIVE MRNA SPLICING :
1631
1632The inclusion or exclusion of different sequences of DNA to form different mRNA transcripts is known as alternative mRNA splicing.
1633</h4></p>
1634<h4><p>
1635
1636AMBIENT :
1637
1638Surrounding, encircling.
1639</h4></p>
1640<h4><p>
1641
1642
1643AMINO ACID :
1644
1645Building block of proteins and enzymes. Dietary proteins need to be broken into their amino acid components before they can be used by the body. Note that there are 20 amino acids found in proteins. Many nutritional lists describe only 18 occluding glutamine and asparagine. Their values are included in those reported for the acidic forms glutamate and aspartate.
1646</h4></p>
1647<h4><p>
1648AMPERE :
1649
1650It is SI unit of electric current. The ampere is defined as the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible cross section, and placed 1 metre apart in a vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10^-7 newton per metre of length.
1651</h4></p>
1652<h4><p>
1653AMPLIFY :
1654
1655The increase in number of DNA sequences in vivo. This is done by inserting cloning vectors in a host cell. Polymerase chain reaction(PCR) is also used as in vitro procedure to amplify DNA.
1656</h4></p>
1657<h4><p>
1658ANABOLISM :
1659
1660Biosynthesis of molecules in cells and part of metabolism.
1661</h4></p>
1662<h4><p>
1663ANAEROBE :
1664
1665The organisms that thrive and grow in an anaerobic environment or environment without oxygen is known as anaerobe.
1666</h4></p>
1667<h4><p>
1668ANAEROBIC :
1669
1670Describes an organism that is able to live without oxygen. Also used to describe environments that are devoid of gaseous or dissolved molecular oxygen.
1671</h4></p>
1672<h4><p>
1673ANALOG :
1674
1675When the behavior of one corresponds to the behavior of something else continuously rather than in steps. The signals to a composite monitor from computer are known as analog voltages.
1676</h4></p>
1677<h4><p>
1678ANEMOMETER :
1679
1680A device used to measure the speed of wind.
1681</h4></p>
1682<h4><p>
1683ANESTHESIOLOGY :
1684
1685The branch of medical science that studies and applies anesthetics.
1686</h4></p>
1687<h4><p>
1688ANGSTROM :
1689
1690A unit of length = 10^-10m
1691</h4></p>
1692<h4><p>
1693
1694
1695ANGULAR MOMENTUM :
1696
1697The measure of the extent to which an object will continue to rotate about a point unless acted upon by an external torque.
1698</h4></p>
1699<h4><p>
1700ANTHROPOGENIC :
1701
1702Describing effects or processes that are derived from human activities, as opposed to effects or processes that occur in the natural environment without human influences.
1703</h4></p>
1704<h4><p>
1705ANTIOXIDANT :
1706
1707A molecule that protects cells from oxidative damage of oxygen and free radical molecules that are chemically unstable and cause random reactions damaging proteins, nucleic acids, and cell membranes. Examples of dietary antioxidants are vitamins C, E, and K, and diverse plant products such as lycopene, a nutraceutical found in tomatoes.
1708</h4></p>
1709<h4><p>
1710ANTIPODAL POINT :
1711
1712The point that is directly on the opposite side of the planet; e.g., the Earth's north pole is antipodal to its south pole.
1713</h4></p>
1714<h4><p>
1715APERIODIC :
1716
1717Refers to the lack of symmetry in molecular structures or functions. An important insight into the mechanism of biological structures is their aperiodic composition and distribution of atoms causing the extraordinary complexity of cells.
1718</h4></p>
1719<h4><p>
1720APHELION :
1721
1722The point in its orbit where a planet is farthest from the Sun.
1723</h4></p>
1724<h4><p>
1725APOAPSIS :
1726
1727The point in orbit farthest from the planet.
1728</h4></p>
1729<h4><p>
1730APOGEE :
1731
1732The point in orbit farthest from the Earth.
1733</h4></p>
1734<h4><p>
1735APPLET :
1736
1737The small program that is written in Java programming language and was designed to provide interactivity on web pages.
1738</h4></p>
1739<h4><p>
1740APPLICATION :
1741
1742A program that is designed to perform specific tasks is known as an application. Internet explorer, Adobe Photoshop are some popular applications.
1743</h4></p>
1744<h4><p>
1745
1746
1747APPLICATION SERVER :
1748
1749The sole responsibility of running specific applications within the network lies with a specialized server that is based in a client/server network is known as application server.
1750</h4></p>
1751<h4><p>
1752AQUIFERS :
1753
1754Underground formations, usually composed of sand, gravel, or permeable rock, capable of storing and yielding significant quantities of water.
1755</h4></p>
1756<h4><p>
1757ARAGONITE :
1758
1759A carbonate mineral that forms naturally in almost all mollusk shells, as well as the calcareous endoskeleton of warm- and cold-water corals
1760</h4></p>
1761<h4><p>
1762ARCHAEA :
1763
1764A major division of microorganisms belonging to kingdom Monera in the traditional five-kingdom taxonomy. Like bacteria, Archaea are single-celled organisms lacking nuclei and are therefore prokaryotes.
1765</h4></p>
1766<h4><p>
1767ARGUMENT OF PERIHELION :
1768
1769The measurement of an angle along the orbit of a planet or other solar system object from the ascending node is known as argument of perihelion. It corresponds to right ascension and longitude.
1770</h4></p>
1771<h4><p>
1772ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU) :
1773
1774This is the mathematical core circulatory that mathematically and logically calculates the results of binary data and is applied to all the central processing units (CPU) in computers.
1775</h4></p>
1776<h4><p>
1777ARTESIAN :
1778
1779Describes a confined aquifer containing groundwater that will flow upwards out of a well without the need for pumping.
1780</h4></p>
1781<h4><p>
1782ASH :
1783
1784The fine-grained material produced by a pyroclastic eruption. An ash particle is defined to have a diameter of less than 2 millimeters.
1785</h4></p>
1786<h4><p>
1787ASTEROID NUMBER :
1788
1789Asteroids are assigned a serial number when they are discovered; it has no particular meaning except that asteroid N+1 was discovered after asteroid N.
1790</h4></p>
1791<h4><p>
1792ASTHENOSPHERE :
1793
1794Ductile rocks that lie from below the lithosphere to 250 km below the surface.
1795</h4></p>
1796<h4><p>
1797
1798
1799ASTRONOMICAL UNIT (AU) :
1800
1801The average distance from the Earth to the Sun; 1 AU is 149,597,870 kilometers (92,960,116 miles).
1802</h4></p>
1803<h4><p>
1804ATMOSPHERC PRESSURE :
1805
1806One atmospheic pressure is 105 Newtons per square meter; the average atmospheric pressure at sea level on Earth.
1807</h4></p>
1808<h4><p>
1809ATMOSPHERE :
1810
1811The blanket of air that surrounds the Earth. It is thickest near the ground and gradually fades away to nothing in outerspace.
1812</h4></p>
1813<h4><p>
1814ATMOSPHERIC LAPSE RATE :
1815
1816The constant decline in temperature of an air parcel as it rises in the atmosphere due to pressure drop and gas expansion. It is an adiabatic charge.
1817</h4></p>
1818<h4><p>
1819ATOM :
1820
1821The smallest unit of matter as recognized by chemical properties of molecules. Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. The latter provide all properties described by molecular interactions and chemical reactions that are essential processes in biology.
1822</h4></p>
1823<h4><p>
1824ATOMIC MASS UNIT :
1825
1826The standard reference atom chosen by IUPAC in 1961 is carbon-12 isotope designated as 12C6 or simply as12C. The 12C isotope has been assigned an atomic mass of 12.000000 atomic mass unit. Hence, one atomic mass unit (amu) is the mass equal to 1/12th of the mass of a 12C atom. It is abbreviated as amu or mau
1827</h4></p>
1828<h4><p>
1829ATOMS :
1830
1831Atoms made up of protons and neutrons in a central nucleus surrounded by electrons. The smallest particle of a chemical element that can take part in a chemical reaction without being permanently changed.
1832</h4></p>
1833<h4><p>
1834ATP :
1835
1836Short for Adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide and universal energy currency for metabolism. Almost all caloric content of food is converted into ATP before it can be utilized for tissue growth, muscle work and other physiological processes.
1837</h4></p>
1838<h4><p>
1839AURORA :
1840
1841A glow in a planet's ionosphere caused by the interaction between the planet's magnetic field and charged particles from the Sun.
1842</h4></p>
1843<h4><p>
1844AURORA BOREALIS :
1845
1846The Northern Lights caused by the interaction between the solar wind, the Earth's magnetic field and the upper atmosphere; a similar effect happens in the southern hemisphere where it is known as the aurora australis.
1847</h4></p>
1848<h4><p>
1849<h1><p>B</h1></p>
1850<h4><p>
1851
1852
1853BACTERIA :
1854
1855Microscopic organisms whose single cells have neither a membrane-bounded nucleus nor other membrane-bounded organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts.
1856</h4></p>
1857<h4><p>
1858BACTERIOLOGY :
1859
1860The branch of science under microbiology that studies unicellular, microscopic organisms known as bacteria.
1861</h4></p>
1862<h4><p>
1863BANDWIDTH :
1864
1865It is the measurement calculated in bits per second, to know the amount of data that can be sent through a connection.
1866</h4></p>
1867<h4><p>
1868BAR :
1869
1870A unit of pressure, equal to the sea-level pressure of Earth's atmosphere; 1 bar = 0.987 atmosphere = 101,300 pascals = 14.5 lbs/square inch = 100,000 Newtons per square meter.
1871</h4></p>
1872<h4><p>
1873BAROMETER :
1874
1875A device used to measure the pressure of the atmosphere. The barometer unit of measure is called millibars.
1876</h4></p>
1877<h4><p>
1878BASALT :
1879
1880A general term for dark-colored, igneous rocks composed of minerals that are relatively rich in iron and magnesium.
1881</h4></p>
1882<h4><p>
1883BASE :
1884
1885A bitter tasting substance (and often slimy) - the opposite of a acid substance. Base solutions will turn a litmus blue.
1886</h4></p>
1887<h4><p>
1888BASE LOAD POWER :
1889
1890The average amount of electricity consumed at any given time. Base load power stations are designed to operate continuously, unlike peaking power stations that generally run only when there is a high demand.
1891</h4></p>
1892<h4><p>
1893BATTERY :
1894
1895A device that produces electricity by means of chemical reaction. A battery consist of one or more units called electric cells. Each cell has all the chemicals and parts needed to produce an electric current.
1896</h4></p>
1897<h4><p>
1898BERNOULLI EFFECT :
1899
1900Also known as Venturi effect, means that decrease in the pressure of fluid increases the velocity of the fluid. The Bernoulli's principle and the equation of continuity form the basis of Bernoulli's effect.
1901
1902</h4></p>
1903<h4><p>
1904BILE :
1905
1906The digestive juice released from liver (stored in gall bladder) into the digestive tract to help solubilize and absorb fat soluble nutrients. Bile contains bile acids, biochemical derivatives of cholesterol. Bile acids serve as intestinal detergents for the proper homogenization and uptake (absorption) of dietary lipids.
1907</h4></p>
1908<h4><p>
1909BIOACCUMULATION :
1910
1911The increase in concentration of a chemical in organisms that reside in environments contaminated with low concentrations of various organic compounds.
1912</h4></p>
1913<h4><p>
1914BIODEGRADABLE :
1915
1916A property of molecules or chemicals that refers to their usefulness as food because they can be metabolized (metabolism) by organism.
1917</h4></p>
1918<h4><p>
1919BIODIESEL :
1920
1921A diesel-equivalent, processed fuel derived from biological sources (such as vegetable oils), that can be used in unmodified diesel-engine vehicles.
1922</h4></p>
1923<h4><p>
1924BIODIVERSITY :
1925
1926The collective richness and variety of all forms of life - bacteria, archaea, eukarya and associated viruses.
1927</h4></p>
1928<h4><p>
1929BIOFUEL :
1930
1931Derived from biomass — recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows.
1932</h4></p>
1933<h4><p>
1934BIOLOGICAL PUMP :
1935
1936The sum of a suite of biologically-mediated processes that transport carbon from the surface euphotic zone (the depth of the water that is exposed to sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis to occur) to the ocean's interior.
1937</h4></p>
1938<h4><p>
1939BIOLOGY :
1940
1941The science which deals with the study of living organisms is known as biology. It is derived from the Greek word bios meaning 'life' and logia that means 'study of'.
1942</h4></p>
1943<h4><p>
1944BIOMES :
1945
1946Broad regional areas characterized by a distinctive climate, soil type, and biological community.
1947</h4></p>
1948<h4><p>
1949BIOSTASIS :
1950
1951A state in which the cell's and tissue structure of an organism are preserved so that they can be restored again with the help of cell repair machines.
1952</h4></p>
1953<h4><p>
1954
1955BIOVOROUS :
1956
1957An organism that can convert biological material into energy for sustenance is known as a biovorous organism.
1958</h4></p>
1959<h4><p>
1960BLACK HOLE :
1961
1962An object whose gravity is so strong that the escape velocity exceeds the speed of light.
1963</h4></p>
1964<h4><p>
1965BLACKBODY TEMPERATURE :
1966
1967The temperature of an object if it is reradiating all the thermal energy that has been added to it; if an object is not a blackbody radiator, it will not reradiate all the excess heat and the leftover will go toward increasing its temperature.
1968</h4></p>
1969<h4><p>
1970BLOOMS :
1971
1972A relatively rapid increase in the population of (usually) phytoplankton algae in an aquatic system. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater or marine environments.
1973</h4></p>
1974<h4><p>
1975BLUE SHIFT :
1976
1977The lines of spectrum shift towards the shorter wavelengths when an object moves towards the observer. This shorten wavelength shifts towards the blue side of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is known as blue shift.
1978</h4></p>
1979<h4><p>
1980BLUETOOTH :
1981
1982The connection of electronic devices with the help of radio technology is known as Bluetooth. The bluetooth cab provide a range of up to 10 meters without the help of cables to connect devices that are lined up.
1983</h4></p>
1984<h4><p>
1985BOLIDE :
1986
1987An exploding meteorite.
1988</h4></p>
1989<h4><p>
1990BOSE CONDENSATION :
1991The science which deals with the study of living organisms is known as biology. It is derived from the Greek word bios meaning 'life' and logia that means 'study of'.
1992</h4></p>
1993<h4><p>
1994BOSONS :
1995
1996Bosons are the glue that holds the universe together. Their job is to transfer energy from one particle to another. There are four bosons: gravitons, photons, W and Z particles. When a boson collides with a particle its energy is absorbed and it ceases to exist. It follows that bosons only exist to transfer energy from one particle to another. Each is linked to one of the four forces of nature.
1997</h4></p>
1998<h4><p>
1999BOTANY :
2000
2001The science which deals with the study of plants is known as botany.
2002</h4></p>
2003<h4><p>
2004
2005BOW SHOCK :
2006
2007The outermost part of a planetary magnetosphere; the place where the supersonic flow of the solar wind is slowed to subsonic speed by the planetary magnetic field.
2008</h4></p>
2009<h4><p>
2010BRECCIA :
2011
2012A course-grained rock, composed of angular, broken rock fragments held together by a mineral cement or a fine-grained matrix.
2013</h4></p>
2014<h4><p>
2015BREMSSTRAHLUNG :
2016
2017When a fast charged particle like an electron slows down as it passes to matter. Thus, loses energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This is known as Bremsstrahlung. This is a German word that means 'breaking radiation'.
2018</h4></p>
2019<h4><p>
2020BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (BTU) :
2021
2022A unit of heat. One Btu is the energy required to raise one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit at a constant pressure of one atmosphere.
2023</h4></p>
2024<h4><p>
2025BUCCAL CAVITY :
2026
2027The first part of the alimentary also known as the mouth is called the buccal cavity. This portion receives the food and begins digesting the food by mixing saliva with food.
2028</h4></p>
2029<h4><p>
2030BUFFER :
2031
2032An aqueous solution of weak acid and its conjugate acid or weak base and its conjugate acid is known as buffer solution. The buffer solution is used to maintain the pH value constant in many chemical applications.
2033</h4></p>
2034<h4><p>
2035BUOYANCY :
2036
2037The upward force on an object produced by the surrounding fluid (i.e., a liquid or a gas) in which it is fully or partially immersed, due to the pressure difference of the fluid between the top and bottom of the object.
2038</h4></p>
2039<h4><p>
2040BUTTE :
2041
2042A conspicuous, isolated, flattop hill with steep slopes.
2043</h4></p>
2044<h1><p>C</p></h1>
2045
2046<h4><p>
2047
2048CALCIUM K :
2049
2050A narrow wavelength of blue light which is emitted and absorbed by ions of the element calcium.
2051</h4></p>
2052<h4><p>
2053CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION :
2054
2055A burst of diversification occurred, about 570 and 530 million years ago, with the eventual appearance of the lineages of almost all animals living today.
2056</h4></p>
2057<h4><p>
2058CANDELA :
2059
2060It is SI unit of luminous intensity. The candela is defined as the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. .
2061</h4></p>
2062<h4><p>
2063CAPACITANCE :
2064
2065An element (capacitor) in an electrical circuit capable of separating charges and storing electrical energy. In cells, membranes have capacitor properties contributing to the storage of electrochemical energy (ion gradients).
2066</h4></p>
2067<h4><p>
2068CAPACITOR :
2069
2070A device that stores electric energy in the form of an electric charge.
2071</h4></p>
2072<h4><p>
2073CAPILLARY ACTION :
2074
2075The tendency of liquids to move into or out of tiny, hairlike passages.
2076</h4></p>
2077<h4><p>
2078CARBOHYDRATES :
2079
2080Theessential structural component of all living cells and also the main source of energy for animals is known as carbohydrates. They include simple sugars with small molecules as well as macromolecular substances. Carbohydrates are classified according to the number of monosaccharide groups contained by them.
2081</h4></p>
2082<h4><p>
2083CARBON DIOXIDE :
2084
2085A heavy colorless gas that does not support combustion, dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, is formed in animal respiration and in the decay or combustion of animal and vegetable matter, and is absorbed from the air by plants in photosynthesis.
2086</h4></p>
2087<h4><p>
2088CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION :
2089
2090Increased plant growth due to a higher carbon dioxide concentration.
2091</h4></p>
2092<h4><p>
2093CARBON MONOXIDE :
2094
2095Odorless, colorless gas that interferes with the delivery of oxygen in the blood to the rest of the body. It is produced as a result of incomplete burning of carbon-containing fuels including coal, wood, charcoal, natural gas, and fuel oil. Depending on the amount inhaled, this gas can impede coordination, worsen cardiovascular conditions, and produce fatigue, headache, weakness, confusion, disorientation, nausea, and dizziness. Very high levels can cause death.
2096</h4></p>
2097<h4><p>
2098
2099CARBONATE :
2100
2101A compound containing carbon and oxygen; an example is calcium carbonate (limestone).
2102</h4></p>
2103<h4><p>
2104CARRYING CAPACITY :
2105
2106The number of individuals an environment can support without significant negative impacts to the given organism and its environment.
2107</h4></p>
2108<h4><p>
2109CASE-CONTROL STUDY :
2110
2111One type of epidemiological study design used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing a group of patients who have that condition with a group of patients who do not.
2112</h4></p>
2113<h4><p>
2114CATABOLISM :
2115
2116The part of metabolism responsible for degradation of nutrients and energy extraction for the benefit of ATP production.
2117</h4></p>
2118<h4><p>
2119CATACLASTIC :
2120
2121A texture found in metamorphic rocks in which brittle minerals have been broken, crushed and flattened during shearing.
2122</h4></p>
2123<h4><p>
2124CATCHMENT AREA :
2125
2126The area that draws surface runoff from precipitation into a stream or urban storm drain system.
2127</h4></p>
2128<h4><p>
2129CATENA :
2130
2131A chain of craters.
2132</h4></p>
2133<h4><p>
2134CATION :
2135
2136A positive by charged atom or radical.
2137</h4></p>
2138<h4><p>
2139CAVUS :
2140
2141Hollows, irregular depressions.
2142</h4></p>
2143<h4><p>
2144CELESTIAL BODY :
2145
2146An solid object that is present in space is known as celestial body. These celestial bodies are visible from the sky.
2147</h4></p>
2148<h4><p>
2149
2150CELLULAR AUTOMATON :
2151
2152A program the applies a simple rule of what to do repeatedly. Depending on the rule of what to do next, the pattern or behavior generated can look (i) repetitive, simple, and symmetric, (ii) nested (fractal), (iii) random and without any symmetry or repetition whatsoever, or (iv) complex with local patterns but overall broken symmetry (see also complexity).
2153</h4></p>
2154<h4><p>
2155CELSIUS :
2156
2157A type of scale that is used to measure temperature. The values on this scale are 0º C to the freezing point of water and100º C to the boiling point of water at standard pressure.
2158</h4></p>
2159<h4><p>
2160CENTRAL PEAK :
2161
2162The exposed core of uplifted rocks in complex meteorite impact craters; the central peak material typically shows evidence of intense fracturing, faulting and shock metamorphism.
2163</h4></p>
2164<h4><p>
2165CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) :
2166
2167The heart of a computer that interprets and carries out instructions, performs numeric computations and controls all the peripherals attached to it using an microprocessor chip is known as central processing unit or the CPU.
2168</h4></p>
2169<h4><p>
2170CHAOS :
2171
2172A distinctive area of broken terrain.
2173</h4></p>
2174<h4><p>
2175CHARGE :
2176
2177The state of an atom that has lost or gained an electron.
2178</h4></p>
2179<h4><p>
2180CHASMA :
2181
2182A canyon.
2183</h4></p>
2184<h4><p>
2185CHEMICAL REACTION :
2186
2187A process by which one substance is chemically converted to another. Chemical reactions involve the formation or destruction of bonds between atoms.
2188</h4></p>
2189<h4><p>
2190CHEMISTRY :
2191
2192The branch of science that studies the natural sciences which deal with the composition of substances, their properties and their chemical reactions with one another is called chemistry. It is derived from the Egyptian word keme that means 'earth'.
2193</h4></p>
2194<h4><p>
2195CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS :
2196
2197Organic compounds composed of carbon, fluorine, chlorine, and hydrogen, widely used in industry, for example as refrigerants, propellants, and cleaning solvents.
2198</h4></p>
2199<h4><p>
2200
2201CHONDRULE :
2202
2203The small spherical objects that are found in meteorites are called as chondrules. The majority of chondrules contain olivine and pyroxene with little amounts of glass and iron-nickel metal.
2204</h4></p>
2205<h4><p>
2206CHROMOSPHERE :
2207
2208The lower level of the solar atmosphere between the photosphere and the corona.
2209</h4></p>
2210<h4><p>
2211CHYME :
2212
2213Digested content of the stomach released for further digestion in the small intestine.
2214</h4></p>
2215<h4><p>
2216CINDER CONE :
2217
2218A conical hill formed by the accumulation of pyroclastic fragments that fall to the ground in an essentially solid condition.
2219</h4></p>
2220<h4><p>
2221CINDERS :
2222
2223Loose, vesicular volcanic ejecta 4 to 32 millimeters (.16 to 1.28 inches) in diameter.
2224</h4></p>
2225<h4><p>
2226CIRCUIT :
2227
2228The path followed by an electric current. Electricity must flow in a circuit to do useful work.
2229</h4></p>
2230<h4><p>
2231CLAST :
2232
2233A fragment of rock that has been transported, either by volcanic or sedimentary processes.
2234</h4></p>
2235<h4><p>
2236CLATHRATES :
2237
2238A chemical substance consisting of a lattice of one type of molecule trapping and containing a second type of molecule.
2239</h4></p>
2240<h4><p>
2241COANDA EFFECT :
2242
2243Described by Henri Coanda, a Romanian scientist, in the 1930's. This effect describes the tendency of moving air of fluids to follow the nearby curved or inclined surface.
2244</h4></p>
2245<h4><p>
2246CO-ENZYMES :
2247
2248Non-protein substances necessary for the function of some enzymes. Essential coenzymes are also known as vitamins.
2249</h4></p>
2250<h4><p>
2251
2252COEVOLUTION :
2253
2254Simultaneous evolution of two or more species of organisms that interact in significant ways.
2255</h4></p>
2256<h4><p>
2257COGNITION :
2258
2259Cognition refers to the physical recognition of external stimuli that lead to conscious experiences.
2260</h4></p>
2261<h4><p>
2262COHORT STUDY :
2263
2264A study in which patients who presently have a certain condition and/or receive a particular treatment are followed over time and compared with another group who are not affected by the condition under investigation.
2265</h4></p>
2266<h4><p>
2267COLLES :
2268
2269A small hill or knob.
2270</h4></p>
2271<h4><p>
2272COMA :
2273
2274The tail made of gases and dust particles that surrounds a comet is known as coma. It is made by the vaporization of the nucleus due to which jets of gas and dust are released.
2275</h4></p>
2276<h4><p>
2277COMET :
2278
2279It is the icy body that contain a solid nucleus made of water and other dark organic compounds orbiting the Sun. As the comets gets closer to the Sun the nucleus vaporizes forming a 'coma'.
2280</h4></p>
2281<h4><p>
2282COMPENSATION DEPTH :
2283
2284Depth at which light intensity reaches a level at which oxygen evolved from a photosynthesizing organism equals that consumed by its respiration.
2285</h4></p>
2286<h4><p>
2287COMPENSATION ZONE :
2288
2289The point at which there is just enough light for a plant to survive. At this point all the food produced by photosynthesis is used up by respiration. For aquatic plants, the compensation point is the depth of water at which there is just enough light to sustain life (deeper water = less light = less photosynthesis).
2290</h4></p>
2291<h4><p>
2292COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE :
2293
2294The hypothesis stating that when organisms of different species compete for the same resources in the same habitat, one species will commonly be more successful in this competition and exclude the second from the habitat.
2295</h4></p>
2296<h4><p>
2297COMPOSITE VOLCANO :
2298
2299A volcano composed of interbedded lava and pyroclastic material commonly with steep slopes.
2300</h4></p>
2301<h4><p>
2302
2303CONDENSATION :
2304
2305When a substance changes state from a gas to a liquid.
2306</h4></p>
2307<h4><p>
2308CONDUCTANCE :
2309
2310Conductance refers to the flow of ions (charges molecules and elements and measured in 'Siemens') such as sodium, potassium, and chloride and is the proportionality factor relating current to a voltage difference. In electricity theory conductance is the inverse of the resistance as defined by Ohm's law V = RI, where V is the voltage, R the resistance, and I the current).
2311</h4></p>
2312<h4><p>
2313CONDUCTOR :
2314
2315A thing that transmits heat, electricity, light, sound or other form of energy.
2316</h4></p>
2317<h4><p>
2318CONTINGENT VALUATION :
2319
2320A survey-based economic technique for the valuation of non-market resources, typically ecosystems and environmental areas and services. It involves directly asking people, in a survey, how much they would be willing to pay for specific environmental services. It is called “contingent” valuation, because people are asked to state their willingness to pay, contingent on a specific hypothetical scenario and description of the environmental service.
2321</h4></p>
2322<h4><p>
2323CONVECTION :
2324
2325Fluid circulation driven by temperature gradients; the transfer of heat by this automatic circulation (see also Educator's Guide to Convection).
2326</h4></p>
2327<h4><p>
2328CONVERGENCE :
2329
2330The flowing together of air masses.
2331</h4></p>
2332<h4><p>
2333CORAL BLEACHING :
2334
2335Refers to the loss of color of corals due to stress-induced expulsion of symbiotic, unicellular algae called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues. Stress can be induced by: (1) increased water temperatures (often attributed to global warming), (2) starvation caused by a decline in zooplankton levels as a result of overfishing, (3) solar irradiance (photosynthetically active radiation and ultraviolet band light), (4) changes in water chemistry, (5) silt runoff, or (6) pathogen infections.
2336</h4></p>
2337<h4><p>
2338CORE :
2339
2340The core is about 7000 km in diameter with a temperature of 6000oC and a pressure of over 3 million atmospheres. The inner core is a lumpy solid iron sphere and the outer core is a thick liquid iron layer.
2341</h4></p>
2342<h4><p>
2343CORIOLIS FORCE :
2344
2345The apparent force, resulting from the rotation of the Earth, that deflects air or water movement.
2346</h4></p>
2347<h4><p>
2348CORONA :
2349
2350The upper level of the solar atmosphere, characterized by low densities and high temperatures it is not visible from the Earth except during a total eclipse of the sun or by use of special telescopes called coronagraphs.
2351</h4></p>
2352<h4><p>
2353
2354CORONAGRAPH :
2355
2356A special telescope which blocks light from the disk of the Sun in order to study the faint solar atmosphere.
2357</h4></p>
2358<h4><p>
2359Cosmic Ray :
2360
2361Electromagnetic rays of extremely high frequency and energy; cosmic rays usually interact with the atoms of the atmosphere before reaching the surface of the Earth. Some cosmic rays come from outside the solar system while others are emitted from the Sun and pass through holes in the corona.
2362</h4></p>
2363<h4><p>
2364COULOMB :
2365
2366The coulomb is the quantity of electric charge transported in one second (1s) by a current of one ampere (1A). SI derived unit of electric charge. Symbol C Definition of SI Unit s.A Equivalent Form of SI Unit A.s
2367</h4></p>
2368<h4><p>
2369COVALENT :
2370
2371The chemical bond between atoms.
2372</h4></p>
2373<h4><p>
2374CRATER :
2375
23761) A depression formed by the impact of a meteorite. 2) A depression around the orifice of a volcano.
2377</h4></p>
2378<h4><p>
2379CRATONS :
2380
2381The relatively stable portions of continents composed of shield areas and platform sediments; typically, cratons are bounded by tectonically active regions characterized by uplift, faulting and volcanic activity.
2382</h4></p>
2383<h4><p>
2384CRETACEOUS PERIOD :
2385
2386A geological term denoting the interval of Earth history beginning around 144 million years ago and ending 66 million years ago. [ more ]
2387</h4></p>
2388<h4><p>
2389CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY :
2390
2391A major stratigraphic boundry on Earth marking the end of the Mesozoic Era, best known as the age of the dinosaurs. The boundary is defined by a global extinction event that caused the abrupt demise of the majority of all life on Earth.
2392</h4></p>
2393<h4><p>
2394CRUST :
2395
2396The outermost rock layer, divided into continental and oceanic crust. The continental crust is 25-90 km thick and is mostly granite and andesite. The oceanic crust is 6-11 km thick and mostly basalt.
2397</h4></p>
2398<h4><p>
2399CRYOBIOLOGY :
2400
2401The branch of science that deals with the study of life under low temperature conditions. The word is derived from a Greek word cryo that means cold, bios that means 'life' and logos meaning 'science'.
2402</h4></p>
2403<h4><p>
2404
2405CRYSTALLINE :
2406
2407Rock types made up of crystals or crystal fragments, such as metamorphic rocks that recrystallized in high temperature or pressure environments, or igneous rocks that formed from cooling of a melt.
2408</h4></p>
2409<h4><p>
2410CURRENT :
2411
2412It is the rate of flow of electric charge. Its SA unit is ampere.
2413</h4></p>
2414<h4><p>
2415CYANOBACTERIA :
2416
2417A phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. They are often referred to as blue-green algae, although they are in fact prokaryotes, not algae.
2418</h4></p>
2419<h4><p>
2420CYBERSPACE :
2421
2422The term is used to describe the wide range of informational resources that are available through computer networks. This term was originally coined by author William Gibson in his novel Neuromancer.
2423</h4></p>
2424<h4><p>
2425CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECKSUM (CRC) :
2426
2427A redundancy check by a cyclic algorithm generating a check key. The sending and receiving stations are checked after a block check character is accumulated.
2428</h4></p>
2429<h4><p>
2430CYTOLOGY :
2431
2432The branch of science under life science that deals with the study of cell structure, function and chemistry is called as cytology.
2433</h4></p>
2434<h4><p>
2435CYTOSOL :
2436
2437The liquid made from complex mixture of substances dissolved in water that is present inside the cells of organisms is called as cytosol.
2438</h4></p>
2439<h1><p>D</p></h1>
2440<h4><p>
2441
2442
2443DALTON :
2444
2445The unit of measurement to express the atomic and molecular mass is known as Dalton (Da). The approximate mass of a hydrogen atom, a proton and a neutron is a dalton. It is equal to Avogadro's number.
2446</h4></p>
2447<h4><p>
2448DARK MATTER :
2449
2450When current instruments cannot detect matter, but its existence is inferred by its gravitational interactions, it is known as dark matter.
2451</h4></p>
2452<h4><p>
2453DECIBEL :
2454
2455A unit of measurement for sound, it measures the loudness or volume of the sound waves.
2456</h4></p>
2457<h4><p>
2458DEFORESTATION :
2459
2460Removal of trees and other vegetation on a large scale, usually to expand agricultural or grazing lands.
2461</h4></p>
2462<h4><p>
2463DELIVERED DOSE :
2464
2465The portion of an internal dose that actually reaches a biologically sensitive site within the body.
2466</h4></p>
2467<h4><p>
2468DEMOGRAPHIC CONVERGENCE :
2469
2470When the gaps narrow between developed and developing countries for major indicators such as fertility rates and life expectancies.
2471</h4></p>
2472<h4><p>
2473DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND :
2474
2475A rise in the rate of economic growth due to a rising share of working age people in a population.
2476</h4></p>
2477<h4><p>
2478DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION :
2479
2480The pattern of population growth exhibited by the now-developed countries during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
2481</h4></p>
2482<h4><p>
2483DENITRIFICATION :
2484
2485Process of reducing nitrate and nitrite, highly oxidised forms of nitrogen available for consumption by many groups of organisms, into gaseous nitrogen, which is far less accessible to life forms but makes up the bulk of our atmosphere.
2486</h4></p>
2487<h4><p>
2488DENSITY :
2489
2490Mass per unit volume of a substance. It is measured in kilograms per liter or grams per cubic centimeter; the density of water is 1.0, iron is 7.9, and lead is 11.3.
2491</h4></p>
2492<h4><p>
2493
2494DENSITY GRADIENT CENTRIFUGATION :
2495
2496The centrifugation that is carried out at a very high speed, wherein the molecules 'float' at a point. This floating point occurs at a point when the molecule density is equal to the gradient of cesium chloride or sucrose.
2497</h4></p>
2498<h4><p>
2499DEPENDENCY RATIO :
2500
2501The ratio of non-workers (children and retirees) to workers in a human population: the higher the ratio, the greater the dependency load.
2502</h4></p>
2503<h4><p>
2504DEPOLARIZATION :
2505
2506A process of changing the membrane potential from negative to more positive values. The sign of the potential refers to the inside of the cell. Depolarization causes action potentials in neurons and muscle cells. (See also hyperpolarization; op.). Depolarization is the result of inward currents carried by Na+ and Ca++ ions.
2507</h4></p>
2508<h4><p>
2509DERIVED QUANTITY :
2510
2511It is defined by an equation, which can eventually be reduced to base units. e.g. power = energy transferred / time.
2512</h4></p>
2513<h4><p>
2514DESIGNER FOODS :
2515
2516Foods that are enriched with nutraceuticals, antioxidants, and secondary metabolites to improve the physical performance of the body.
2517</h4></p>
2518<h4><p>
2519DEW POINT :
2520
2521The temperature at which air becomes saturated with water vapor and condenses into water called dew.
2522</h4></p>
2523<h4><p>
2524DIAPLECTIC GLASS :
2525
2526A natural glass formed by shock pressure from any of several minerals without melting; it is found only in association with meteorite impact craters.
2527</h4></p>
2528<h4><p>
2529DIELECTRIC CONSTANT :
2530
2531The ratio of electric flux density to electric field.
2532</h4></p>
2533<h4><p>
2534DIFFRACTION :
2535
2536The change in path of wave due to an obstacle is known as diffraction.
2537</h4></p>
2538<h4><p>
2539DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT :
2540
2541The diffusion coefficient D describes the relationship between a concentration gradient and the flow of matter per unit area.
2542</h4></p>
2543<h4><p>
2544
2545DIODE :
2546
2547An electrical device that allows current to flow in a single direction through it is known as a diode. It is a two terminal device having a P-N junction. It is represented by an arrow (←/ →) indicating the direction of flow of electric current in a circuit diagram.
2548</h4></p>
2549<h4><p>
2550DISCHARGES :
2551
2552Defined by the Clean Water Act as the addition of pollutants (including animal manure or contaminated waters) to navigable waters.
2553</h4></p>
2554<h4><p>
2555DISK :
2556
2557The visible surface of the Sun (or any heavenly body) projected against the sky.
2558</h4></p>
2559<h4><p>
2560DISTANCE :
2561
2562An undefined quantity in physics that is used to measure two separate points.
2563</h4></p>
2564<h4><p>
2565DISTRIBUTED NETWORK :
2566
2567This is an effective process in which a network uses multiple locations. A specific job is taken care of each node present in the network instead of using an individual machine processor.
2568</h4></p>
2569<h4><p>
2570DIURNALITY :
2571
2572The characteristic behavior exhibited by majority of animals that remain active during the day and sleep at night.
2573</h4></p>
2574<h4><p>
2575DOPPLER EFFECT :
2576
2577The apparent change in wavelength of sound or light caused by the motion of the source, observer or both.
2578
2579DOPPLER SHIFT :
2580
2581The relative motion between the source and the observer that causes a change in observed frequency is known as Doppler shift.
2582</h4></p>
2583<h4><p>
2584DORSUM :
2585
2586A ridge.
2587DRIVING FORCE :
2588
2589A terminology used in thermodynamics expressing the availability of energy to 'drive' a process such as mechanical work or chemical synthesis. Driving forces exist where a potential gradient exist. A potential gradient can be in form of a temperature gradient causing heat to flow, an electrical gradient causing electrons or ions to flow, or a concentration gradient causing diffusion.
2590</h4></p>
2591<h4><p>
2592
2593DUST (COSMIC) :
2594
2595Tiny particles that are just a few angstroms in size produced by the supernovae explosions and asteroid collisions are known as the cosmic or instersellar dust.
2596</h4></p>
2597<h4><p>
2598DYNAMO :
2599
2600This is a device that is used to create electricity by turning around a magnet near a wire coil.
2601</h4></p>
2602
2603<h1><p>E</p></h1>
2604<h4><p>
2605
2606
2607ECCENTRICITY :
2608
2609A value that defines the shape of an ellipse or planetary orbit; the ratio of the distance between the foci and the major axis.
2610</h4></p>
2611<h4><p>
2612ECLIPSE :
2613
2614The cutting off of light from one celestial body by another.
2615</h4></p>
2616<h4><p>
2617ECLIPTIC :
2618
2619The plane of Earth's orbit about the Sun
2620</h4></p>
2621<h4><p>
2622ECOSYSTEM :
2623
2624A specific characteristic biological system in a location or area with a unique mix of living organisms and physical consistency such as minerals, soil and air.
2625</h4></p>
2626<h4><p>
2627EDGE EFFECT :
2628
2629The observed increase in the number of different species along the margins of two contrasting environments in an ecosystem . This term is commonly used in conjunction with the boundary between natural habitats, especially forests, and disturbed or developed land.
2630</h4></p>
2631<h4><p>
2632EFFLUENT :
2633
2634An outflowing of water from a natural body of water, or from a man-made structure, generally considered to be pollution, such as the outflow from a sewage treatment facility or the wastewater discharge from industrial facilities.
2635</h4></p>
2636<h4><p>
2637EFFUSIVE ERUPTION :
2638
2639A relative quiet volcanic eruption which puts out basaltic lava that moves at about the speed one walks. The lava is fluid in nature. The eruptions at the Kilauea volcano on the island of Hawaii are effusive
2640</h4></p>
2641<h4><p>
2642EJECTA :
2643
2644Material such as glass and fragmented rock thrown out of an impact crater during its formation.
2645</h4></p>
2646<h4><p>
2647EKMAN TRANSPORT :
2648
2649The change in wind direction with altitude caused by the varying effect of surface friction.
2650</h4></p>
2651<h4><p>
2652EL NIÑO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO) :
2653
2654A global event arising from large-scale interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere, usually an oscillation in the surface pressure (atmospheric mass) between the southeastern tropical Pacific and the Australian-Indonesian regions.
2655</h4></p>
2656<h4><p>
2657
2658ELASTICITY :
2659
2660The physical property of an substance due to which it can return to its original shape after undergoing a stress that leads to deformity of its original shape.
2661</h4></p>
2662<h4><p>
2663ELECTRIC CURRENT :
2664
2665The measurement of movement of electricity in charges per second is known as electric current.
2666</h4></p>
2667<h4><p>
2668ELECTROLYSIS :
2669
2670Splitting a substance into the separate chemicals that make it up, by passing an electric current through it.
2671</h4></p>
2672<h4><p>
2673ELECTRON :
2674
2675Subatomic particle carrying a negative electric charge in atoms or molecules.
2676</h4></p>
2677<h4><p>
2678ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN :
2679
2680The chemical reaction in which an electron donor and an electron acceptor is coupled to transfer H+ ions across a membrane with the help of some intermediate of biochemical reactions is known as the electron transport chain.
2681</h4></p>
2682<h4><p>
2683ELECTRON-POSITRON ANNIHILATION :
2684
2685The collision of an electron and its anti-particle, a positron,leads to emittion of gamma-ray photons of each with an energy of 511 keV that leads to their annihilation. This is known as electron-positron annihilation.
2686</h4></p>
2687<h4><p>
2688ELECTRONS :
2689
2690A negatively charged subatomic particle. Electrons are found at varying distances from a atom's nucleus. They make up almost the entire volume of a atom but only account for a small part of the atom's mass. Compare to protons.
2691</h4></p>
2692<h4><p>
2693ELECTRONVOLT :
2694
2695An Electronvolt is the unit of measurement of the energy that is acquired by an electron in falling through a potential difference of one volt.
2696</h4></p>
2697<h4><p>
2698ELECTROPORATION :
2699
2700The increase in electric conductivity of the cell plasma membrane that is caused with the help of electric current that is externally applied is known as electroporation or electropermeabilization.
2701</h4></p>
2702<h4><p>
2703ELEMENT :
2704
2705A basic chemical substance in which all the atoms are the same, and different from the atoms of any other substance.
2706</h4></p>
2707<h4><p>
2708
2709ELLIPSE :
2710
2711A closed curve that is formed from two foci or points in which the sum of the distances from any point on the curve to the two foci is a constant. Johannes Kepler first discovered that the orbits of the planets are ellipses, not circles; he based his discovery on the careful observations of Tycho Brahe.
2712</h4></p>
2713<h4><p>
2714EMBRYOLOGY :
2715
2716The study of development of an embryo is called embryology.
2717</h4></p>
2718<h4><p>
2719EMBRYONIC STEM CELL :
2720
2721The pluripotent stem cells in animals at the very early embryonic development. They have the potential to grow into a complete adult organism.
2722</h4></p>
2723<h4><p>
2724EMULSION :
2725
2726Tiny droplets of one liquid floating in another liquid, such as oil droplets floating in water.
2727</h4></p>
2728<h4><p>
2729EN ECHELON FISSURES :
2730
2731Fissures that are parallel in trend to each other, but offset to either the left or right.
2732</h4></p>
2733<h4><p>
2734ENDEMIC :
2735
2736Describing a disease or characteristic commonly found in a particular region or group of people; a disease constantly present at low levels in an area.
2737</h4></p>
2738<h4><p>
2739ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS :
2740
2741Chemical pollutants that have the potential to substitute for, or interfere with, natural hormones.
2742</h4></p>
2743<h4><p>
2744ENDOCYTOSIS :
2745
2746The process of absorption of molecules present outside the cells by the method of engulfment with the cell membrane is known as endocytosis.
2747</h4></p>
2748<h4><p>
2749ENERGY :
2750
2751The name given to the ability to do work.
2752</h4></p>
2753<h4><p>
2754ENTROPY :
2755
2756The energy form of a system that relates to its internal state of disorder. High entropy levels are disordered states, low entropy levels are characteristic of ordered states.
2757</h4></p>
2758<h4><p>
2759EOLIAN :
2760
2761Related to wind deposits and associated effects.
2762</h4></p>
2763<h4><p>
2764EPIDEMIOLOGY :
2765
2766The science that deals with the incidence and distribution of human disease or disorders.
2767</h4></p>
2768<h4><p>
2769EPIGENETICS :
2770
2771The study of the inheritance and regulation of gene expression that is independent of the DNA sequence of an organism, but depends on the structural modification of chromosome regions. These modifications can alter the phenotype without having to change the genotype proper.
2772</h4></p>
2773<h4><p>
2774ERUPTION :
2775
2776The ejection of volcanic materials (lavas, pyroclasts and volcanic gases) onto the surface, either from a central vent, a fissure or a group of fissures.
2777</h4></p>
2778<h4><p>
2779ESSENTIAL amino acid :
2780
2781An amino acid or fatty acid that cannot be synthesized by our own cells and need to be part of our diet to stay healthy.
2782
2783ESTUARIES :
2784
2785Coastal waters where seawater is measurably diluted with freshwater; a marine ecosystem where freshwater enters the ocean.
2786</h4></p>
2787<h4><p>
2788ETHANOL :
2789
2790A flammable, colorless, slightly toxic chemical compound with a distinctive perfume-like odor. Also known as ethyl alcohol, drinking alcohol, or grain alcohol, in common usage it is often referred to simply as alcohol.
2791</h4></p>
2792<h4><p>
2793ETHERNET :
2794
2795The 10-megabit/second local area network that connects the host with a coaxial cable developed by Xerox. The transmission conflicts are minimized by backing off and re-sending later.
2796</h4></p>
2797<h4><p>
2798EUKARYOTES :
2799
2800Organisms with large cells and internal membrane bound structures called organelles. The defining organelle is the nucleus. Eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes. The latter have no nucleus or any organelle, usually a single naked chromosome (eukarya have several inside the nucleus) and are either bacteria or archaea.
2801</h4></p>
2802<h4><p>
2803EXPLOSIVE ERUPTION :
2804
2805A dramatic volcanic eruption which throws debris high into the air for hundreds of miles. The lava is low in silicate and can be very dangerous for people near by. An example is Mount St. Helens in 1980.
2806</h4></p>
2807<h4><p>
2808
2809EXTENDED MEMORY :
2810
2811The memory that expands upon a DOS systems existing convectional memory is known as extended memory. The Intel PC above 1MB were given the name extended memory. One should not confuse the expanped memory with with expanded memory. The term is today non-existent in the computer world since the barrier of 1 MB has been crossed.
2812</h4></p>
2813<h4><p>
2814EXTINCTION :
2815
2816The death of the last surviving individual of an species that results in total annihilation of the entire group of taxa is known as extiction. The best example of extinction is dinosaurs.
2817</h4></p>
2818<h4><p>
2819EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET :
2820
2821The spectrum between the ultraviolet and X-ray regions is known as extreme ultraviolet (EUV). It is observed in the region of spectrum between 10-100 nm.
2822</h4></p>
2823<h4><p>
2824EXTREMOPHILES :
2825
2826Microorganisms belonging to the domains Bacteria and Archaea that can live and thrive in environments with extreme conditions such as high or low temperatures and pH levels, high salt concentrations, and high pressure.
2827</h4></p>
2828<h1><p>F</h1></p>
2829<h4><p>
2830FACULAE :
2831
2832A bright region of the photosphere seen in white light, seldom visible except near the solar limb.
2833</h4></p>
2834<h4><p>
2835FARHENHEIT :
2836
2837The scale of measurement of temperature where the water freezes at 32ºF and the boiling point of water is 212ºF at standard pressure.
2838</h4></p>
2839<h4><p>
2840FAST BREEDER :
2841
2842A fast neutron reactor designed to breed fuel by producing more fissile material than it consumes.
2843</h4></p>
2844<h4><p>
2845FATTY ACIDS :
2846
2847Most common form of lipids found in all cells. Come in saturated (reduced) and unsaturated (oxidized) form and are a component of phospholipids and fats.
2848</h4></p>
2849<h4><p>
2850FAULT :
2851
2852A crack or break in the crust of a planet along which slippage or movement can take place.
2853</h4></p>
2854<h4><p>
2855FECUNDITY :
2856
2857A measure of the capacity of an organism to produce offspring.
2858</h4></p>
2859<h4><p>
2860FERTILITY :
2861
2862A measure of reproduction: the number of children born per couple, person, or population.
2863</h4></p>
2864<h4><p>
2865FILAMENT :
2866
2867A strand of cool gas suspended over the photosphere by magnetic fields, which appears dark as seen against the disk of the Sun; a filament on the limb of the Sun seen in emission against the dark sky is called a prominence.
2868</h4></p>
2869<h4><p>
2870FISCHER-TROPSCH PROCESS :
2871
2872A catalyzed chemical reaction in which carbon monoxide and hydrogen are converted into liquid hydrocarbons of various forms. The principal purpose of this process is to produce a synthetic petroleum substitute, typically from coal or natural gas, for use as synthetic lubrication oil or as synthetic fuel.
2873</h4></p>
2874<h4><p>
2875FISHER-TROSCH REACTION :
2876
2877The catalytic reaction in which organic molecules are produced by the addition of hydrogen is known as Fisher-Tropsch Reaction.
2878</h4></p>
2879<h4><p>
2880
2881FISSILE :
2882
2883Capable of sustaining a chain reaction of nuclear fission.
2884</h4></p>
2885<h4><p>
2886FISSURE :
2887
2888A narrow opening or crack of considerable length and depth.
2889</h4></p>
2890<h4><p>
2891FLARE :
2892
2893A sudden eruption of energy on the solar disk lasting minutes to hours, from which radiation and particles are emitted.
2894</h4></p>
2895<h4><p>
2896FLEXUS :
2897
2898A cuspate linear feature
2899</h4></p>
2900<h4><p>
2901FLOW :
2902
2903The rate at which new material is added to or removed from the stock.
2904</h4></p>
2905<h4><p>
2906FLUCTUS :
2907
2908A flow terrain
2909</h4></p>
2910<h4><p>
2911FORAMINIFERA :
2912
2913A large group of amoeboid protists with reticulating pseudopods—fine strands of cytoplasm that branch and merge to form a dynamic net. They typically produce a test, or shell, which can have either one or multiple chambers, some becoming quite elaborate in structure.
2914</h4></p>
2915<h4><p>
2916FOSSA :
2917
2918A long, narrow, shallow depression.
2919</h4></p>
2920<h4><p>
2921FREE ELECTRON LASER :
2922
2923The tunable laser that is made by wiggling a beam of electrons is known as the Free Electron Laser (FEL).
2924</h4></p>
2925<h4><p>
2926FREEZE :
2927
2928The state of solidification of a liquid when it reaches its freezing point is known as freeze.
2929</h4></p>
2930<h4><p>
2931
2932FREEZING POINT :
2933
2934The temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid. Increased pressure usually raises the freezing point.
2935</h4></p>
2936<h4><p>
2937FREQUENCY :
2938
2939The number of full cycles performed by an oscillating wave in a second is known as frequency.
2940</h4></p>
2941<h4><p>
2942FRESHWATER :
2943
2944Water without significant amounts of dissolved sodium chloride (salt). Characteristic of rain, rivers, ponds, and most lakes.
2945</h4></p>
2946<h4><p>
2947FRICTION :
2948
2949The force of resistance that develops when two objects rub against each other is known as friction.
2950</h4></p>
2951<h4><p>
2952FUEL CELLS :
2953
2954An electrochemical energy conversion device that produces electricity from external supplies of fuel (on the anode side) and oxidant (on the cathode side). Fuel cells differ from batteries in that they consume reactant, which must be replenished, while batteries store electrical energy chemically in a closed system.
2955</h4></p>
2956<h4><p>
2957FUNDAMENTAL NICHE :
2958
2959The full range of environmental conditions (biological and physical) under which an organism can exist.
2960</h4></p>
2961<h4><p>
2962FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES :
2963
2964The particles like leptons, quarks and gauge bosons that do not contain any smaller component are known as fundamental particles.
2965</h4></p>
2966<h1><p>G</p></h1>
2967<h4><p>
2968
2969
2970GAIA HYPOTHESIS :
2971
2972Named for the Greek Earth goddess Gaea, this hypothesis holds that the Earth should be regarded as a living organism. British biologist James Lovelock first advanced this idea in 1969.
2973</h4></p>
2974<h4><p>
2975GALILEAN MOONS :
2976
2977Jupiter's four largest moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto; discovered independently by Galileo and Marius.
2978</h4></p>
2979<h4><p>
2980GAMETES :
2981
2982The spermatozoa and the ova that carry genes donated from both parents is known as gametes.
2983</h4></p>
2984<h4><p>
2985GASIFICATION :
2986
2987A process that converts carbonaceous materials, such as coal, petroleum, petroleum coke or biomass, into carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
2988</h4></p>
2989<h4><p>
2990GAUGE BOSONS :
2991
2992The intermediate particles that help transfer energy between protons, gravitons, W and Z particles are known as gauge bosons.
2993</h4></p>
2994<h4><p>
2995GENOTYPING :
2996
2997Genotyping is the process of comparing various strains of microorganisms including viruses and bacteria to distinguish pathogenic from non-pathogenic strains (infectious versus non-infectious types). The technique used for genotyping are DNA microarrays.
2998</h4></p>
2999<h4><p>
3000GEOCHEMICAL CYCLING :
3001
3002Flows of chemical substances between reservoirs in Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere (water bodies), and lithosphere (the solid part of Earth’s crust).
3003</h4></p>
3004<h4><p>
3005GEOGRAPHY :
3006
3007The study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants is known as geography.
3008</h4></p>
3009<h4><p>
3010GEOLOGY :
3011
3012The study of earth's crust, that is, the solid and liquid matter form the Earth is known as geology.
3013</h4></p>
3014<h4><p>
3015GEOSTROPHIC FLOW :
3016
3017A current in the atmosphere in which the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient are in balance.
3018</h4></p>
3019<h4><p>
3020
3021GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT :
3022
3023A direct, circular, low-inclination orbit in which the satellite's orbital velocity is matched to the rotational velocity of the planet; a spacecraft appears to hang motionless above one position of the planet's surface.
3024</h4></p>
3025<h4><p>
3026GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT :
3027
3028The rate of increase in temperature per unit depth in the Earth.
3029</h4></p>
3030<h4><p>
3031GEOTROPISM :
3032
3033The growth movement of a plant or fungus towards gravity is known as geotropism. There are two types of geotropisms positive geotropism that is exhibited by the roots and negative geotropism shown by stems.
3034</h4></p>
3035<h4><p>
3036GERMANIUM DETECTOR :
3037
3038The detection of powerful radiation like gamma rays can be detected using the instrument like germanium detector.
3039</h4></p>
3040<h4><p>
3041GIGABYTES :
3042
3043One gigabyte is equal to 1,024 megabytes. Gigabyte is often represented as 'G' or 'GB'
3044</h4></p>
3045<h4><p>
3046GIGAPASCAL :
3047
3048The unit of pressure that is used to measure the deep Earth. Gigapascal is measured as 1 GPa= 10 kilobars= 10,000 times air pressure at sea level.
3049</h4></p>
3050<h4><p>
3051GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL :
3052
3053A measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. Compares the gas in question to that of the same mass of carbon dioxide.
3054</h4></p>
3055<h4><p>
3056GLOBULAR CLUSTERS :
3057
3058A group of thousands to millions of old stars is known as globular cluster. These old stars that are help together in orbit by their own mass and are arranged in a spherical cluster.
3059</h4></p>
3060<h4><p>
3061GLUCOSE :
3062
3063The major carbohydrate in starch and fruit sugar. The latter is also known as sucrose and contains fructose with every glucose molecule.
3064</h4></p>
3065<h4><p>
3066GLUONS :
3067
3068The particles that help hold quarks together are known as gluons.
3069</h4></p>
3070<h4><p>
3071
3072GLYCEMIC INDEX :
3073
3074A measure of how rapidly glucose of various forms of carbohydrates are absorbed into the blood circulation.
3075</h4></p>
3076<h4><p>
3077GLYCOGEN :
3078
3079The major complex carbohydrate in animal cells made of glucose. Glycogen is for animals what starch is for plants. Although glycogen is an important long term storage of energy in muscle and liver cells, it is of little nutritional significance, because most glycogen in muscle spontaneously degrades during slaughtering. Thus meats, except liver, have little or no carbohydrate content.
3080</h4></p>
3081<h4><p>
3082GPRS :
3083
3084GPRS also known as: "General Packet Radio Service” is a wireless data standard used on GSM networks. It offers theoretical data rates as high as 120kbps on the downlink side, but real world speeds are typically significantly slower.
3085</h4></p>
3086<h4><p>
3087GPS :
3088
3089The Global Positioning System is a series of satellites owned by the US government that broadcasts signals that GPS receivers on the surface of the planet can use to determine position through triangulation. The term GPS is often used to refer to a GPS receiver, such as those used in cars and sometimes found in mobile phones.
3090</h4></p>
3091<h4><p>
3092GRABEN :
3093
3094An elongated, relatively depressed crustal unit or block that is bounded by faults on its sides.
3095</h4></p>
3096<h4><p>
3097GRANULATION :
3098
3099A pattern of small cells seen on the surface of the Sun caused by the convective motions of the hot solar gas.
3100</h4></p>
3101<h4><p>
3102GRAVITY :
3103
3104The physical force that is exerted on all masses and is proportional to the mass of an object is known as gravity.
3105</h4></p>
3106<h4><p>
3107GREENHOUSE EFFECT :
3108
3109An increase in temperature caused when the atmosphere absorbs incoming solar radiation but blocks outgoing thermal radiation; carbon dioxide is the major factor.
3110</h4></p>
3111<h4><p>
3112GREENHOUSE GASES :
3113
3114Atmospheric gases or vapors that absorb outgoing infrared energy emitted from the Earth naturally or as a result of human activities. Greenhouse gases are components of the atmosphere that contribute to the Greenhouse effect.
3115</h4></p>
3116<h4><p>
3117GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY (GPP) :
3118
3119The rate at which an ecosystem accumulates biomass, including the energy it uses for the process of respiration.
3120</h4></p>
3121<h4><p>
3122
3123GROUND TISSUE :
3124
3125The simple non-meristematic tissues in plants that are made up of 3 cell types like parenenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are known as ground tissue. These usually form the pith, cortex or the mesophyll.
3126</h4></p>
3127<h4><p>
3128GROUNDWATER :
3129
3130Water contained in porous strata below the surface of the Earth.
3131</h4></p>
3132<h4><p>
3133GYRE :
3134
3135A circular or spiral motion, especially a circular ocean current.
3136</h4></p>
3137<h1><p>H</h1></p>
3138<h4><p>
3139
3140
3141HABITAT FRAGMENTATION :
3142
3143A process of environmental change important in evolution and conservation biology. It can be caused by geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment or by human activity, such as land conversion, that can alter the environment on a much faster time scale.
3144</h4></p>
3145<h4><p>
3146
3147HADLEY CIRCULATION :
3148
3149A general circulation pattern in which air rises near the equator, flows north and south away from the equator at high altitudes, sinks near the poles, and flows back along the surface from both poles to the equator.
3150</h4></p>
3151<h4><p>
3152
3153HADRONS :
3154
3155The particles that interact with a strong force are known as hadrons. All hadrons are quark composites. Baryons and mesons make up the two sub-sets of hadron.
3156</h4></p>
3157<h4><p>
3158
3159H-ALPHA :
3160
3161A narrow wavelength of red light which is emitted and absorbed by the element hydrogen; this wavelength is often used to study the Sun.
3162</h4></p>
3163<h4><p>
3164
3165HARVEST INDEX :
3166
3167The ratio of grain weight to total plant weight.
3168</h4></p>
3169<h4><p>
3170
3171Heart-Lung Machine :
3172
3173Heart-Lung machine is a device used in open heart surgery to support the body during the surgical procedure while the heart is stopped. The heart-lung machine is often referred to as the "pump", and does the work of the heart and lungs during the operation. The heart-lung machine consists of a chamber that receives the blood from the body, which is normally the responsibility of the heart’s right atrium. This blood is then pumped by the machine through an oxygenator, a function normally the responsibility of the right ventricle. The oxygenator removes the CO2 and adds oxygen, which is normally the work of the lungs. The pump then pumps this newly oxygenated blood back to the body, which is normally the work of the left heart. The heart-lung machine is connected to the patient by a series of tubes that the surgical team places. At the end of the operation, the surgeon gradually allows the patient’s heart to resume its normal function, and the heart-lung machine is "weaned off".
3174</h4></p>
3175<h4><p>
3176
3177HEDONIC VALUATION :
3178
3179A method used to estimate economic values for ecosystem or environmental services that directly affect market prices.
3180</h4></p>
3181<h4><p>
3182
3183HELIOCENTRIC :
3184
3185Sun centered; see Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo.
3186</h4></p>
3187<h4><p>
3188
3189HELIOPAUSE :
3190
3191The point at which the solar wind meets the interstellar medium or solar wind from other stars.
3192</h4></p>
3193<h4><p>
3194
3195HELIOSPHERE :
3196
3197The space within the broundary of the heliopause containing the Sun and solar system.
3198</h4></p>
3199<h4><p>
3200
3201
3202HEMI-CELLULOSE :
3203
3204A type of dietary fiber made up glucose and many other types of sugars and differs from cellulose, which only contains glucose.
3205</h4></p>
3206<h4><p>
3207
3208HEMISPHERE :
3209
3210A half of the celestial sphere that is divided into two halves by either the horizon, the celestial equator, or the ecliptic.
3211</h4></p>
3212<h4><p>
3213
3214HERTZ :
3215
3216The hertz is the frequency of a periodic phenomenon of which the period is one second (1s). SI derived unit of frequency. Symbol Hz Definition of SI Unit s-1 Equivalent Form of SI Unit
3217</h4></p>
3218<h4><p>
3219
3220HESPERIAN EPOCH :
3221
3222Three broad time periods or epochs are used to explain the geologic history of the planet Mars. The oldest one being the Noachin, followed by Hesperian and Amazonian. The Hesperian Epochis known to extend from about 3.5 to 1.8 billion years ago.
3223</h4></p>
3224<h4><p>
3225
3226HETEROCHROMATIN :
3227
3228The tightlypacked DNA form which has limited transcription ability is known as heterochromatin.
3229</h4></p>
3230<h4><p>
3231
3232HETEROTROPHS :
3233
3234An organism that feeds on animals as well as on plants.
3235</h4></p>
3236<h4><p>
3237
3238HIGGSBOSON :
3239
3240The massive scalar elementary particle predicted and studied by the Standard Model in particle physics is known as the Higgs Boson.
3241</h4></p>
3242<h4><p>
3243
3244HIGHLAND SOIL :
3245
3246The sediments found on lunar highland surface, that are composed of broken rocks and mineral fragments is known as the highland soil.
3247</h4></p>
3248<h4><p>
3249
3250HIGH-PRESSURE MINERAL PHASE :
3251
3252In this phase, mineral forms that are stable only at the extremely high pressures typical of Earth's deep interior but not its surface. Such pressures are generated instantaneously during meteorite impact. Stishovite is the high-pressure polymorph of quartz, a common crustal mineral.
3253</h4></p>
3254<h4><p>
3255
3256HOMOZYGOUS :
3257
3258Identifies the two alleles of a gene in a diploid organisms as being identical to each other. In heterozygous individuals, the two alleles are different versions of the gene.
3259</h4></p>
3260<h4><p>
3261
3262
3263HORMONES :
3264
3265Messenger substances synthesized in the body and secreted by the endocrine glands. Hormones regulate the digestive system, growth, hunger, thirst, blood glucose and cholesterol levels, fat burning and storage, absorption and excretion, internal clocks such as day and night cycles, menstrual cycles, and sex drive.
3266</h4></p>
3267<h4><p>
3268
3269HOT SPOTS :
3270
3271An informal expression designating specific areas as being contaminated with radioactive substances, having a relatively high concentration of air pollutant(s), or experiencing an abnormal disease or death rate.
3272</h4></p>
3273<h4><p>
3274
3275HUBBLE CONSTANT :
3276
3277The measure of the rate at which the Universe expands is known as the Hubble Constant.
3278</h4></p>
3279<h4><p>
3280
3281HUMIDITY :
3282
3283The amount of water vapor in the air.
3284</h4></p>
3285<h4><p>
3286
3287HUMMOCKY :
3288
3289Uneven, lumpy terrain.
3290</h4></p>
3291<h4><p>
3292
3293HYDRATES :
3294
3295Compounds formed by the union of water with some other substance.
3296</h4></p>
3297<h4><p>
3298
3299HYDRAULIC HEAD :
3300
3301The force per unit area exerted by a column of liquid at a height above a depth (and pressure) of interest. Fluids flow down a hydraulic gradient, from points of higher to lower hydraulic head.
3302</h4></p>
3303<h4><p>
3304
3305HYDROCARBONS :
3306
3307Chemical compounds containing carbon and hydrogen as the principal elements. Oil is composed primarily of hydrocarbons.
3308</h4></p>
3309<h4><p>
3310
3311HYDROXYL RADICAL :
3312
3313The neutral form of the hydroxide ion, often referred to as the "detergent" of the troposphere because it reacts with many pollutants, often acting as the first step to their removal.
3314</h4></p>
3315<h4><p>
3316
3317HYPERPOLARIZATION :
3318
3319The change in a cell's membrane potential, due to the efflux of K+ channels or the influx of Cl- through the Cl- channels, that makes it negative is known as hyperpolarization.
3320</h4></p>
3321<h4><p>
3322
3323
3324HYPERTEXT :
3325
3326The mark-up language that leads to non-linear transfers of data is known as hypertext. World Wide Web is the most commonly used form of hypertext.
3327</h4></p>
3328<h4><p>
3329
3330HYPOTHESIS :
3331
3332A testable scientific idea that can be proved right or wrong with experiments. A hypothesis is a formulation of a question that lends itself to a prediction. This prediction can be verified or falsified. A question can only be use as scientific hypothesis, if their is an experimental approach or observational study that can be designed to check the outcome of a prediction.
3333</h4></p>
3334<h4><p>
3335
3336HYPOXIC :
3337
3338Referring to a condition in which natural waters have a low concentration of dissolved oxygen (about 2 milligrams per liter, compared with a normal level of 5 to 10 milligrams per liter). Most game and commercial species of fish avoid waters that are hypoxic.
3339</h4></p>
3340<h1><p>I</h1></p>
3341<h4><p>
3342
3343ICE :
3344
3345Solid form of water. Also planetary scientists use this word to refer to water, methane, and ammonia, which usually occur as solids in the outer solar system.
3346</h4></p>
3347<h4><p>
3348IGNEOUS :
3349
3350Rock or mineral that solidified from molten or partly molten material.
3351</h4></p>
3352<h4><p>
3353IMMISCIBLE :
3354
3355Incapable of mixing or attaining homogeneity.
3356</h4></p>
3357<h4><p>
3358IMMORTALIZING ONCOGENE :
3359
3360The growth of a primary cell that grows indefinitely in a culture due to transfer of a gene that is known as immortalizing oncogene.
3361</h4></p>
3362<h4><p>
3363IMPACT :
3364
3365When a body like meteorite forcefully stikes another body like moon or a planet it is known as impact.
3366</h4></p>
3367<h4><p>
3368INCLINATION :
3369
3370The inclination of a planet's orbit is the angle between the plane of its orbit and the ecliptic. The inclination of a moon's orbit is the angle between the plane of its orbit and the plane of its primary's equator.
3371</h4></p>
3372<h4><p>
3373INDEPENDENT VARIABLE :
3374
3375The variable among two related variables that can roam freely is known as independent variable. The other variable that is dependent on the former, is known as dependent variable.
3376</h4></p>
3377<h4><p>
3378INDICATOR :
3379
3380The substance that exhibits one color in acids and another color when added to an alkali is known as indicator. This helps to determine whether a liquid is an acid or a base/alkali.
3381</h4></p>
3382<h4><p>
3383INDUCTION :
3384
3385The process by which an object having electrical or magnetic properties produces similar properties in a nearby object, usually without direct contact.
3386</h4></p>
3387<h4><p>
3388INERTIA :
3389
3390The tendency of a body to remain at rest or stay in motion unless acted upon by an external force.
3391</h4></p>
3392<h4><p>
3393
3394
3395INFERIOR PLANETS :
3396
3397The planets Mercury and Venus are inferior planets because their orbits are closer to the Sun than is Earth's orbit.
3398</h4></p>
3399<h4><p>
3400INFLOW :
3401
3402General term designating the water or other fluid entering a system.
3403</h4></p>
3404<h4><p>
3405INFRARED LIGHT :
3406
3407The light that has wavelength between 7000 Angstroms and several hundred microns. This light is invisible to the human eye. It can be sensed as 'heat' or thermal radiation'.
3408</h4></p>
3409<h4><p>
3410INORGANIC :
3411
3412Compounds that do not contain carbon, such as minerals and water. Inorganic is not synonymous with synthetic as is some times erroneously suggested.
3413</h4></p>
3414<h4><p>
3415INOSITOL LIPID :
3416
3417The conversion of hormonal signals by stimulation of the release of any of the several chemical messengers by a membrane-anchored phospholipid. This phospholipid is known as inositol lilip.
3418</h4></p>
3419<h4><p>
3420INSULATOR :
3421
3422A material through which electricity or heat cannot flow easily is known as an insulator.
3423</h4></p>
3424<h4><p>
3425INSULIN :
3426
3427A protein hormone that regulates the use of glucose after a carbohydrate rich meal stimulating the degradation of glucose to extract energy and the storage of excess glucose in glycogen or metabolic conversion to fatty acids and cholesterol.
3428</h4></p>
3429<h4><p>
3430INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT :
3431
3432The use of a combination of the following to limit pest damage to agricultural crops: (1) agricultural practices (2) biological control agents (3) introduction of large numbers of sterile male insects (4) timed application of synthetic chemical pesticides and (5) application of pheromones and juvenile hormones.
3433</h4></p>
3434<h4><p>
3435INTENSITY BRANCHING :
3436
3437It is the intensity of a radiation that is emitted during a radioactive decay.
3438</h4></p>
3439<h4><p>
3440INTERFEROMETER :
3441
3442The measuring device where the electromagnetic radiation is split and recombined after traveling through different path lengths such that the beams interfere and produce an interference pattern.
3443</h4></p>
3444<h4><p>
3445
3446INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELD :
3447
3448The magnetic field carried with the solar wind.
3449</h4></p>
3450<h4><p>
3451INVASIVE SPECIES :
3452
3453Refers to a subset of introduced species or non-indigenous species that are rapidly expanding outside of their native range.
3454</h4></p>
3455<h4><p>
3456ION :
3457
3458An atom or molecular fragment that has a positive electrical charge due to the loss of one or more electrons; the simplest ion is the hydrogen nucleus, a single proton.
3459</h4></p>
3460<h4><p>
3461IONOSPHERE :
3462
3463A region of charged particles in a planet's upper atmosphere; the part of the earth's atmosphere beginning at an altitude of about 400 kilometers (25 miles) and extending outward 400 kilometers (250 miles) or more.
3464</h4></p>
3465<h4><p>
3466ISOBARS :
3467
3468Lines on a map connecting points having the same barometric pressure.
3469</h4></p>
3470<h1><p>J</h1></p>
3471<h4><p>
3472
3473
3474JEJUNUM :
3475
3476The mid-section of the small intestine of many higher vertebrates like mammals, birds, reptiles is called as jejunum. It is present between the duodenum and the ileum.
3477</h4></p>
3478<h4><p>
3479JET STREAM :
3480
3481Fast flowing, relatively narrow air currents found in the atmosphere at around 11 kilometres (36,000 ft) above the surface of the Earth, just under the tropopause.
3482</h4></p>
3483<h4><p>
3484JOULE :
3485
3486The joule is the work done when the point of application of a force of one newton (1N) is displaced through a distance of one metre (1m) in the direction of the force. It is SI derived unit of energy and its symbol is J . Its SI Unit m2.kg.s-2 Equivalent Form of SI Unit is N.m
3487</h4></p>
3488<h4><p>
3489JOVIAN PLANET :
3490
3491Any of the four outer, gaseous planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
3492</h4></p>
3493<h4><p>
3494JUNCTION (CELL) :
3495
3496A protein based structure that connects two adjacent cells. Junctions are used for contact formation and communication. Common junctions in animal systems are tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes and hemidesmosome (connects a cell to the extra-cellular matrix to form stable connective tissue).
3497</h4></p>
3498<h1><p>K</h1></p>
3499<h4><p>
3500
3501
3502KARYOKINESIS :
3503
3504The process of change that undetakes during cell nucleus division at mitosis is known as karyokinesis.
3505</h4></p>
3506<h4><p>
3507KELVIN (K) :
3508
3509It is SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. The kelvin is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 (exactly) of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
3510</h4></p>
3511<h4><p>
3512KERATINS :
3513
3514The fibrous stuctural proteins that are tough and insoluble found in reptiles, birds, amphibians and mammals is known as keratin.
3515</h4></p>
3516<h4><p>
3517KEYSTONE SPECIES :
3518
3519A single kind of organism or a small collection of different kinds of organisms that occupy a vital ecological niche in a given location.
3520</h4></p>
3521<h4><p>
3522KIDNEYS :
3523
3524Kidneys are fist-sized bean-shaped paired organ located near the middle of the back of our body, just below the rib one on each side of the spine. Each of the kidney is about the size of an adult fist and weigh around 150 grams each. The left kidney lies a little higher than the right kidney. They are about 10 cm long and about 6.5 cm wide. They are protected from injury by a large padding of fat, your lower ribs and several muscles It plays a very important role in the excretory system of your body. The kidneys perform many functions to keep the blood clean and chemically balanced.
3525</h4></p>
3526<h4><p>
3527KILOGRAM :
3528
3529It is SI units of mass. The kilogram is defined as the mass of the international prototype kilogram (a platinum-iridium cylinder) kept at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures at Sèvres in France.
3530</h4></p>
3531<h4><p>
3532KILOMETER (km) :
3533
3534One kilometer is the distance equivalent to 1,000 meters or 0.62 miles.
3535</h4></p>
3536<h4><p>
3537K-SELECTED :
3538
3539Those species that invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a better chance of surviving to adulthood.
3540</h4></p>
3541<h4><p>
3542KUIPER BELT :
3543
3544The spherical region of the outer solar system that has a population of 'ice dwarfs' is known as the Kuiper Belt.
3545</h4></p>
3546<h4><p>
3547KYOTO PROTOCOL :
3548
3549An amendment to the international treaty on climate change, assigning mandatory targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to signatory nations.
3550</h4></p>
3551<h1><p>L</h1></P>
3552<h4><p>
3553
3554LABES :
3555
3556A landslide.
3557</h4></p>
3558<h4><p>
3559LABYRINTHUS :
3560
3561An intersecting valley complex.
3562</h4></p>
3563<h4><p>
3564LACUS :
3565
3566A lake
3567</h4></p>
3568<h4><p>
3569LAGRANGIAN POINT :
3570
3571One of the solutions to the three-body problem discovered by the eighteenth century French mathematician Lagrange; the two stable Lagrangian points, L-4 and L-5, lie in the orbit of the primary body, leading and trailing it by a 60-degree arc.
3572</h4></p>
3573<h4><p>
3574LATENT ENERGY :
3575
3576Energy supplied externally, normally as heat, that does not bring about a change in temperature.
3577</h4></p>
3578<h4><p>
3579LATITUDINAL BIODIVERSITY GRADIENT :
3580
3581The increase in species richness or biodiversity that occurs from the poles to the tropics, often referred to as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity.
3582</h4></p>
3583<h4><p>
3584LAVA :
3585
3586A general term for molten rock that is extruded onto the surface.
3587</h4></p>
3588<h4><p>
3589LAVA TUBE :
3590
3591A tunnel formed underneath the surface of a solidfying lava flow.
3592</h4></p>
3593<h4><p>
3594LEADING HEMISPHERE :
3595
3596The hemisphere that faces forward, into the direction of motion of a satellite that keeps the same face toward the planet.
3597</h4></p>
3598<h4><p>
3599LECITHIN :
3600
3601A major component of cell membranes containing equal amounts of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, phosphate, and choline. Lecithin is a member of the lipid group called phospholipids. Its biochemical name is phosphatidylcholine (PC).
3602</h4></p>
3603<h4><p>
3604
3605LEE :
3606
3607The side of an object that is sheltered from the wind.
3608</h4></p>
3609<h4><p>
3610LEPTONS :
3611
3612Leptons are indestructible and highly unreactive: they may join in the atomic party but do not dance. You cannot combine leptons to make bigger particles. Examples of leptons include: electrons, positrons, neutrinos and muons.
3613</h4></p>
3614<h4><p>
3615LEUKOCYTES :
3616
3617The white blood cells of the immune system, that defend the body against infectious diseases and foreign materials are known as leukocytes.
3618</h4></p>
3619<h4><p>
3620LEVEE :
3621
3622An embankment, continuous dike or ridge.
3623</h4></p>
3624<h4><p>
3625LIFE EXPECTANCY :
3626
3627Term usually used at birth, indicating the average age that a newborn can be expected to attain.
3628</h4></p>
3629<h4><p>
3630LIFE HISTORY STRATEGY :
3631
3632An organism's allocation of energy throughout its lifetime among three competing goals: growing, surviving, and reproducing.
3633</h4></p>
3634<h4><p>
3635LIGHT :
3636
3637The electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye is known as light.
3638</h4></p>
3639<h4><p>
3640LIGHT YEAR :
3641
3642The distance light travels in a year, at the rate of 300,000 kilometers per second (671 million miles per hour); 1 light-year is equivalent to 9.46053e12 km, 5,880,000,000,000 miles or 63,240 AU.
3643</h4></p>
3644<h4><p>
3645LIGHTENING :
3646
3647A powerful flash of electricity between the negative electrical charges in clouds or between a cloud and the ground.
3648</h4></p>
3649<h4><p>
3650LIMB :
3651
3652The outer edge of the apparent disk of a celestial body.
3653</h4></p>
3654<h4><p>
3655
3656LINEA :
3657
3658An elongate marking.
3659</h4></p>
3660<h4><p>
3661LINEAMENT :
3662
3663Linear topographic feature that may depict crustal structure.
3664</h4></p>
3665<h4><p>
3666LITHOSPHERE :
3667
3668Equivalent in part to the crust, the lithosphere comprises of a number of tectonic plates that 'float' on the asthenosphere.
3669</h4></p>
3670<h4><p>
3671LOBATE :
3672
3673Having lobes or resembling a lobe.
3674</h4></p>
3675<h4><p>
3676LUMINOSITY :
3677
3678The radiation amount that is emitted by a star or celestial object at a given time is known as Luminosity.
3679</h4></p>
3680<h1><p>M</h1></p>
3681
3682
3683MACH NUMBER :
3684
3685The ratio of fluid speed to sound speed in that fluid is known as Mach Number.If the fluid is moving at a supersonic speed, the Mach number is greater than 1. In case the fluid is moving at hypersonic speed it greater than 5.
3686</h4></p>
3687<h4><p>
3688MACROMOLECULES :
3689
3690Large molecules in biological systems namely proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides.
3691</h4></p>
3692<h4><p>
3693MACRONUTRIENTS :
3694
3695Also called caloric nutrients including proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Some definitions include water and alcohol. The term is used by gardeners and in agriculture referring to common minerals needed for proper plant growth.
3696</h4></p>
3697<h4><p>
3698MACROSCOPIC :
3699
3700Used in science to describe large scale processes like the temperature, volume, pressure,and energy of a system characterizing the behavior of a very large number of molecules. The macroscopic values tend to be predictable and represent the average behavior of a system. They give no detailed information about the behavior of individual molecules or units of a system
3701</h4></p>
3702<h4><p>
3703MACULA :
3704
3705A dark spot.
3706</h4></p>
3707<h4><p>
3708MAGMA :
3709
3710Molten rock within the crust of a planet that is capable of intrusion into adjacent crustal rocks or extrusion onto the surface. Igneous rocks are derived from magma through solidification and related processes or through eruption of the magma at the surface.
3711</h4></p>
3712<h4><p>
3713MAGNETIC FIELD :
3714
3715A region of space near a magnetized body where magnetic forces can be detected.
3716</h4></p>
3717<h4><p>
3718MAGNETISM :
3719
3720The force exerted by electric current on other electric currents is known as magnetism.
3721</h4></p>
3722<h4><p>
3723MAGNETOGRAPH :
3724
3725A special telescope which analyzes the color and polarization of sunlight in order to measure the magnetic field of the Sun.
3726</h4></p>
3727<h4><p>
3728MAGNETOPAUSE :
3729
3730The boundary of the magnetosphere, lying inside the bow shock.
3731</h4></p>
3732<h4><p>
3733
3734MAGNETOSPHERE :
3735
3736The region of space in which a planet's magnetic field dominates that of the solar wind.
3737</h4></p>
3738<h4><p>
3739MAGNETOTAIL :
3740
3741The portion of a planetary magnetosphere which is pushed in the direction of the solar wind
3742</h4></p>
3743<h4><p>
3744MANTLE :
3745
3746The mantle stretches from the below the crust to 2900 km below the surface. The upper part is partially molten and the lower part is very dense. The main mantle rock is peridotite.
3747</h4></p>
3748<h4><p>
3749MARE :
3750
3751Latin word for "sea." Galileo thought the dark featureless areas on the Moon were bodies of water, even though the Moon is essentially devoid of liquid water. The term is still applied to the basalt-filled impact basins common on the face of the Moon visible from Earth.
3752</h4></p>
3753<h4><p>
3754MARINE SNOW :
3755
3756The tiny leftovers of animals, plants, and non-living matter in the ocean's sun-suffused upper zones. Among these particles are chains of single-celled plants called diatoms, shreds of zooplankters' mucous food traps, soot, fecal pellets, dust motes, radioactive fallout, sand grains, pollen, and pollutants. Microorganisms also live inside and on top of these odd-shaped flakes.
3757</h4></p>
3758<h4><p>
3759MASS :
3760
3761Often defined as the amount of matter in an object. Note that mass and weight are not the same thing. Weight is the force on an object due to the gravitational pull of a planet or other heavenly body. Mass on the other hand, remains constant, no matter where it is.
3762</h4></p>
3763<h4><p>
3764MATHEMATICS :
3765
3766The branch of science that studies the quantity, structure, space and change is known as mathematics. It includes use of abstraction and logical reasoning.
3767</h4></p>
3768<h4><p>
3769MEDIA :
3770
3771The substances through which the movement of light takes place like air, water, glass, etc. are known as media.
3772</h4></p>
3773<h4><p>
3774MENSA :
3775
3776A mesa, flat-topped elevation.
3777</h4></p>
3778<h4><p>
3779MESA :
3780
3781A broad, flattop, erosional hill or mountain, commonly bounded by steep slopes.
3782</h4></p>
3783<h4><p>
3784
3785MESON :
3786
3787The particles that are made of a quark and an anti-quark that are thought to bind protons and neutrons together inside the nucleus are known as mesons.
3788</h4></p>
3789<h4><p>
3790METEOR :
3791
3792The luminous phenomenon seen when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere, commonly known as a shooting star.
3793</h4></p>
3794<h4><p>
3795METEOR SHOWER :
3796
3797A group of meteors that are seen in the same part of sky and which occur over a period of few days or few hours is known as meteor shower.
3798</h4></p>
3799<h4><p>
3800METEORITE :
3801
3802A part of a meteoroid that survives through the Earth's atmosphere.
3803</h4></p>
3804<h4><p>
3805METEOROID :
3806
3807A small rock in space.
3808</h4></p>
3809<h4><p>
3810METHANE HYDRATES :
3811
3812Natural formations consisting of mounds of icelike material on or just below the sea floor containing large amounts of methane trapped within a lattice of icelike crystals.
3813</h4></p>
3814<h4><p>
3815METRE :
3816
3817It is SI unit of length. The metre is defined as the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
3818</h4></p>
3819<h4><p>
3820MICROARRAY :
3821
3822A microarray is an experimental platform used to study the presence or activity of a full set of genes or proteins found in a cell or organism. When studying the presence of genes, the microarray (DNA microarray) is used for genotyping, i.e., assessing the full genetic complement of an organism as compared to a closely related organism.
3823</h4></p>
3824<h4><p>
3825MICROBIOLOGY :
3826
3827The branch of science that studies the life cycle and effects of microscopic organisms on the environment and other living creatures is known as microbiology.
3828</h4></p>
3829<h4><p>
3830MICROFLORA :
3831
3832The bacterial colonies found in the large intestine. These bacteria are important for proper digestion and fecal excretion of waste products. Micronutrients Vitamins or Minerals that are needed in daily amounts up to a few milligrams.
3833</h4></p>
3834<h4><p>
3835
3836MICROGRAVITY :
3837
3838When in space, the near-weightlessness experienced by a person or object in free fall is known as microgravity.
3839</h4></p>
3840<h4><p>
3841MIGRATION :
3842
3843When living organisms move from one biome to another. It can also describe geographic population shifts within nations and across borders.
3844</h4></p>
3845<h4><p>
3846MILKY WAY :
3847
3848Our galaxy is observed as a misty band of light stretching across a night sky due to which it is known as milky way. There are one hundred million stars in our milky way.
3849</h4></p>
3850<h4><p>
3851MILLIBAR :
3852
3853This is 1/1000 of a bar; the standard sea-level pressure is about 1,013 millibars.
3854</h4></p>
3855<h4><p>
3856MIMICRY :
3857
3858Evolving to appear similar to another successful species or to the environment in order to dupe predators into avoiding the mimic, or dupe prey into approaching the mimic.
3859</h4></p>
3860<h4><p>
3861MINOR PLANETS :
3862
3863Another term used for asteroids.
3864</h4></p>
3865<h4><p>
3866MODEM :
3867
3868The change of data from digital, that is, computer language, into analog, that is phone line language, and then turning back into digital is known as a Modems. Modem is made by joining two words, 'Mo'dulation and 'De'modulation.
3869</h4></p>
3870<h4><p>
3871MOLE :
3872
3873It is SI unit of amount of substance. The mole is defined as the quantity of substance of a system that contains the same number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions, electrons or particles, depending on the substance) as there are atoms in 0.012 kilograms of pure, unbound carbon-12; this number is approximately equal to 6.02214199×10^23.
3874</h4></p>
3875<h4><p>
3876MOLECULAR BIOLOGY :
3877
3878The science of studying the genetic composition and mechanism of living organisms at the molecular level. It historically refers to the understanding and manipulation of genes (DNA). The molecular studies of all other organic molecules like proteins, fats, and carbohydrates is called biochemistry.
3879</h4></p>
3880<h4><p>
3881MOLECULE :
3882
3883One of the basic units of matter. It is the smallest particle into which a substance can be divided and still have he chemical identity of the original substance.
3884</h4></p>
3885<h4><p>
3886
3887MOMENTUM :
3888
3889The product of mass and velocity is known as momentum. In other words, it is the measure of motion is a moving object.
3890</h4></p>
3891<h4><p>
3892MONOCULTURE :
3893
3894The growing of a single plant species over a large area.
3895</h4></p>
3896<h4><p>
3897MONS :
3898
3899A mountain.
3900</h4></p>
3901<h4><p>
3902MONTREAL PROTOCOL :
3903
3904A 1987 international agreement, subsequently amended in 1990, 1992, 1995, and 1997, that establishes in participating countries a schedule for the phaseout of chloroflourocarbons and other substances with an excessive ozone-depleting potential.
3905</h4></p>
3906<h4><p>
3907MORTALITY :
3908
3909The loss of members of a population through death.
3910</h4></p>
3911<h4><p>
3912MUTAGENISIS :
3913
3914The process through which the genetic information of an organism is changed naturally or experimentally by using chemicals or radiation is known as mutagenisis.
3915</h4></p>
3916<h4><p>
3917MUTUALISTIC :
3918
3919Refers to an interaction between two or more distinct biological species in which members benefit from the association. Describes both symbiotic mutualism (a relationship requiring an intimate association of species in which none can carry out the same functions alone) and nonsymbiotic mutualism (a relationship between organisms that is of benefit but is not obligatory: that is, the organisms are capable of independent existence).
3920</h4></p>
3921<h1><p>N</h1></P>
3922<h4><p>
3923
3924
3925NANOSECOND :
3926
3927It is a billionth of a second. The speed of memory chips and other computer operations are measured in nanoseconds (ns).
3928</h4></p>
3929<h4><p>
3930NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS :
3931
3932Standards established by the EPA and required by The Clean Air Act (last amended in 1990) for pollutants considered harmful to public health and the environment.
3933</h4></p>
3934<h4><p>
3935NATURAL FIRES :
3936
3937A rapid, persistent chemical reaction that releases heat and light; especially the combination of any substance that's easy to burn with oxygen that releases heat. Most natural fires start when a lightening bolt strikes a tree trunk and knocks the tree down.
3938</h4></p>
3939<h4><p>
3940NATURAL SELECTION :
3941
3942The process described by Darwin's theory of evolution that favors certain genotypes and disfavors others. This process is entirely guided by the interaction of an organism with its environment. See also adaptation.
3943</h4></p>
3944<h4><p>
3945NEBULA :
3946
3947The cloud of dust and gas in space is known as nebula.
3948</h4></p>
3949<h4><p>
3950NERVE :
3951
3952The bundle of peripheral axons that provides a pathway for the passage of electrochemical nerve impulses transmitted along each of the axons is known as nerves.
3953</h4></p>
3954<h4><p>
3955NERVOUS SYSTEM :
3956
3957A network of specialized cells that help an organism communicate information about the surroundings and thus react accordingly is known as nervous system.
3958</h4></p>
3959<h4><p>
3960NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY (NPP) :
3961
3962The rate at which new biomass accrues in an ecosystem.
3963</h4></p>
3964<h4><p>
3965NETWORK :
3966
3967A computer system that recieves and sends data is known as network.
3968</h4></p>
3969<h4><p>
3970NEUTRINO :
3971
3972A fundamental particle supposedly produced in massive numbers by the nuclear reactions in stars; they are very hard to detect because the vast majority of them pass completely through the Earth without interacting.
3973</h4></p>
3974<h4><p>
3975
3976NEUTRON STAR :
3977
3978The endpoint of the life of a massive star that explodes into a supernova that comprises of mainly neutrons is known as neutron star.
3979</h4></p>
3980<h4><p>
3981NEWTON :
3982
3983The derived unit of force in the SI system of units. 1 newton (N) is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram by 1 meter per square second. It is named after Isaac Newton.
3984</h4></p>
3985<h4><p>
3986NICHE PARTITIONING :
3987
3988The process by which natural selection drives competing species into different patterns of resource use or different niches. Coexistence is obtained through the differentiation of their realized ecological niches.
3989</h4></p>
3990<h4><p>
3991NITROCELLULOSE :
3992
3993The membrane that helps immobilize DNA, RNA or protein that can be probed with a labeled sequence or antibody is known as nitrocellulose.
3994</h4></p>
3995<h4><p>
3996NITROGEN FIXING :
3997
3998The conversion of nitrogen in the atmosphere (N2) to a reduced form (e.g., amino groups of amino acids) that can be used as a nitrogen source by organisms.
3999</h4></p>
4000<h4><p>
4001NITROGEN OXIDES :
4002
4003A group of highly reactive gases, all of which contain nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. Many of the nitrogen oxides are colorless and odorless. However, one common pollutant, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), along with particles in the air, can often be seen as a reddish-brown layer over many urban areas.
4004</h4></p>
4005<h4><p>
4006NITROGENOUS BASES :
4007
4008The purines, that is, adenine and guanine and the pyrimidines, that is, thymine, cytosine and uracil, that make up a DNA and RNA molecules are known as nitrogenous bases.
4009</h4></p>
4010<h4><p>
4011NOAEL :
4012
4013No observable adverse effects level is the level of exposure of an organism, found by experiment or observation, at which there is no biologically or statistically significant increase in the frequency or severity of any adverse effects in the exposed population when compared to its appropriate control.
4014</h4></p>
4015<h4><p>
4016NOCTURNAL :
4017
4018The group of animals that remain active during the night and sleep during the day are known as nocturnal. There are many species of plants that flower during the night instead of day. these are known as nocturnal plants.
4019</h4></p>
4020<h4><p>
4021NON POINT SOURCE :
4022
4023A diffuse, unconfined discharge of water from the land to a receiving body of water. When this water contains materials that can potentially damage the receiving stream, the runoff is considered to be a source of pollutants.
4024</h4></p>
4025<h4><p>
4026
4027NON-AQUEOUS PHASED LIQUIDS :
4028
4029Organic liquids that are relatively insoluble in water and less dense than water. When mixed with water or when an aquifer is contaminated with this class of pollutant (frequently hydrocarbon in nature), these substances tend to float on the surface of the water.
4030</h4></p>
4031<h4><p>
4032NONATTAINMENT AREAS :
4033
4034Defined by The Clean Air Act as a locality where air pollution levels persistently exceed National Ambient Air Quality Standards, or that contributes to ambient air quality in a nearby area that fails to meet standards.
4035</h4></p>
4036<h4><p>
4037NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCE :
4038
4039A natural resource such as coal or mineral ores that is not replaceable after its removal.
4040</h4></p>
4041<h4><p>
4042NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATION :
4043
4044A major disturbance of the atmospheric circulation and climate of the North Atlantic-European region, linked to a waxing and waning of the dominant middle-latitude westerly wind flow during winter.The NAO Index is based on the pressure difference between various stations to the north (Iceland) and south (Azores) of the middle latitude westerly flow. It is, therefore, a measure of the strength of these winds.
4045
4046NORTHERN BLOTTING :
4047
4048The procedure where RNA fragments are transferred from an agarose gel to a nitrocellulose filter. This is where the RNA is hybridized to a radioactive probe. This procedure is also known as Northern Hybridization.
4049</h4></p>
4050<h4><p>
4051NOVA :
4052
4053A sudden increase in the brightness of a star by a factor of more than hundred is known as nova.
4054</h4></p>
4055<h4><p>
4056NUCLEAR PHYSICS :
4057
4058The branch of science that studies the nucleus of an atom is known as nuclear physics. It is a subfield of quantum physics.
4059</h4></p>
4060<h4><p>
4061NUCLEASE :
4062
4063The enzymes that degrade the DNA/ RNA molecules are known as nuclease. The nuclease enzymes cleave the phoshodiester bonds that link adjacent nucleotides of a DNA / RNA molecule.
4064</h4></p>
4065<h4><p>
4066NUCLEIC ACID :
4067
4068The collective name for DNA and RNA molecules found in every cell. The genetic component of cells (DNA, RNA polymers), but also important for cellular energy metabolism, signaling, and protein biosynthesis (RNA, single nucleotides).
4069</h4></p>
4070<h4><p>
4071NUCLEIN :
4072
4073It is the material described by Friedrich Miescher he discovered in cells in 1869, now known as DNA.
4074</h4></p>
4075<h4><p>
4076
4077NUTRIENT :
4078
4079Molecules that can be used by cells or living organism to extract energy through metabolic processes. Although nutrients are often sought off only as energy providers, they can also be used as molecular building block for the biosynthesis of cellular structures.
4080</h4></p>
4081<h1><p>O</h1></p>
4082<h4><p>
4083
4084OBLIQUITY :
4085
4086The angle between a body's equatorial plane and orbital plane.
4087</h4></p>
4088<h4><p>
4089
4090OCCULATION :
4091
4092When an astronomical object completely or partially eclipses another astronomical object it is known as occulation.
4093</h4></p>
4094<h4><p>
4095
4096OCCULTATION :
4097
4098The blockage of light by the intervention of another object; a planet can occult (block) the light from a distant star.
4099</h4></p>
4100<h4><p>
4101
4102OCEANUS :
4103
4104An ocean.
4105</h4></p>
4106<h4><p>
4107
4108OIL SHALE :
4109
4110A general term applied to a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing enough organic material (called kerogen) to yield oil and combustible gas upon distillation.
4111</h4></p>
4112<h4><p>
4113
4114OKAZAKI FRAGMENT :
4115
4116The short DNA fragment with an RNA primer at the 5' terminus that is created on the lagging strand during DNA replication is known as Okazaki fragment.
4117</h4></p>
4118<h4><p>
4119
4120OLD :
4121
4122A planetary surface that has been modified little since its formation typically featuring large numbers of impact craters; (compare to young).
4123</h4></p>
4124<h4><p>
4125
4126ONCOGENE :
4127
4128A gene that is mutated or inappropriately expressed leading to cancer is known as oncogene.
4129</h4></p>
4130<h4><p>
4131
4132OPPOSITION :
4133
4134The point where a planet that is far away from the Sun than the Earth, lines up with Sun and Earth is known as opposition. Opposition is the point when the planet is closest to Earth.
4135</h4></p>
4136<h4><p>
4137
4138OPTICAL DEPTH :
4139
4140Optical depth is a measure of the transparency of a ring system. When a ring is "optically thick" (i.e., the optical depth is large), the ring is nearly opaque and very little light passes through. When a ring is "optically thin" (i.e., the optical depth is small), very little material is present and most of the light passes through.
4141</h4></p>
4142<h4><p>
4143
4144
4145OPTICAL LIGHT :
4146
4147The light that is detected by the human eye having an wave length of 4000 and 7000 angstroms is known as optical light.
4148</h4></p>
4149<h4><p>
4150ORBIT :
4151
4152The path of an object that is moving around a second object or point.
4153</h4></p>
4154<h4><p>
4155ORE :
4156
4157A mineral or an aggregate of minerals from which a valuable constituent, especially a metal, can be profitably mined or extracted.
4158</h4></p>
4159<h4><p>
4160ORGANELLE :
4161
4162Subcellular structure in eukaryotic cells (e.g. plants and animals) providing specialized function within cells. Organelles are separated from each other and the cytoplasm of the cell by membranes.
4163</h4></p>
4164<h4><p>
4165ORGANIC :
4166
4167Compounds that contain carbon, such as vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins and fats, but not minerals. Organic is a chemical term designating compounds containing a carbon skeleton plus hydrogens, oxygen, and in smaller and variable amounts nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur.
4168</h4></p>
4169<h4><p>
4170ORGANIC AGRICULTURE/FARMING :
4171
4172A form of agriculture which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth regulators, and livestock feed additives.
4173</h4></p>
4174<h4><p>
4175ORGANISM :
4176
4177The individual member of a species; can be a single cell or a multicellular organism. Organisms are the biological unit of reproduction and while cells of single cell organism are autonomous (bacteria, archaea), individual cells of multicellular organisms (fungi, plants, animals) are not.
4178</h4></p>
4179<h4><p>
4180ORGANOCHLORINES :
4181
4182An organic compound containing at least one covalently bonded chlorine atom.
4183</h4></p>
4184<h4><p>
4185OSMOREGULATION :
4186
4187The osmotic pressure of the fluids inside an organism, that is actively regulated to maintain homeostasis of the organism's water content is known as osmoregulation. It helps prevent the organisms fluids from becoming too dilute or too concentrated.
4188</h4></p>
4189<h4><p>
4190OSMOSIS :
4191
4192The natural passage or diffusion of water (or other liquids) through a semi permeable membrane
4193</h4></p>
4194<h4><p>
4195
4196OVERBURDEN :
4197
4198The rock and dirt that overlie a mineral deposit and that must be removed before the mineral deposit can be extracted by surface mining.
4199</h4></p>
4200<h4><p>
4201OVOID :
4202
4203Shaped like an egg.
4204</h4></p>
4205<h4><p>
4206OVULATION :
4207
4208The process of menstruation cycle in females, in which the the mature ovarian follicle ruptures to discharge an ovum or egg to participate in reproduction is known as Ovulation.
4209</h4></p>
4210<h4><p>
4211OXIDATION :
4212
4213Chemical reactions involving different types of chemical conversions such as (1) loss of electrons by a chemical, (2) combination of oxygen and another chemical, (3) removal of hydrogen atoms from organic compounds during biological metabolism, (4) burning of some material, (5) biological metabolism that results in the decomposition of organic material, (6) metabolic conversions in toxic materials in biological organism, (7) stabilization of organic pollutants during wastewater treatment, (8) conversion of plant matter to compost, (9) decomposition of pollutants or toxins that contaminate the environment.
4214</h4></p>
4215<h4><p>
4216OXIDIZE :
4217
4218To combine with oxygen.
4219</h4></p>
4220<h4><p>
4221OXYGEN :
4222
4223A colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that is the most plentiful element in the Earth's crust. It was discovered in 1772 by Swidish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele.
4224</h4></p>
4225<h4><p>
4226OXYGENATED BLOOD :
4227
4228Blood that supplies oxygen bound to hemoglobin that is carried in red cells to the various tissues, and cells of the body is known as oxygenated blood. The heart pumps out the oxygenated blood through the important artery known as coronery artery.
4229</h4></p>
4230<h4><p>
4231OZONE :
4232
4233A triatomic molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms. Ground-level ozone is an air pollutant with harmful effects on the respiratory systems of animals. On the other hand, ozone in the upper atmosphere protects living organisms by preventing damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth's surface.
4234</h4></p>
4235<h1><p>P</h1></p>
4236<h4><p>
4237
4238
4239PACIFIC DECADAL OSCILLATION :
4240
4241A pattern of Pacific climate variability that shifts phases on at least inter-decadal time scale, usually about 20 to 30 years. The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean, north of lat. 20° N. During a "warm" or "positive" phase, the west Pacific becomes cool and part of the eastern ocean warms; during a "cool" or "negative" phase, the opposite pattern occurs.
4242</h4></p>
4243<h4><p>
4244PAHOEHOE :
4245
4246A type of basalt lava flow characterized by a smooth glassy skin, and constructed of innumerable "flow units" called "toes"; pahoehoe flows advance at rates of 1 to 10 meters (3 to 33 feet) hour and are associated with low-effusion-rate eruptions with little to no fountaining.
4247</h4></p>
4248<h4><p>
4249PALEOCLIMATE :
4250
4251Referring to past climates of the Earth.
4252</h4></p>
4253<h4><p>
4254PALEOZOIC :
4255
4256A geological term denoting the time in Earth history between 570 and 245 million years ago.
4257</h4></p>
4258<h4><p>
4259PALIMPSEST :
4260
4261A circular feature on the surface of dark icy moons such as Ganymede and Callisto lacking the relief associated with craters; Pamlimpsests are thought to be impact craters where the topographic relief of the crater has been eliminated by slow adjustment of the icy surface.
4262</h4></p>
4263<h4><p>
4264PALUS :
4265
4266A swamp.
4267</h4></p>
4268<h4><p>
4269PARALOG :
4270
4271Paralog refers to genes of high similarity within the same organism. Paralogous genes thus are members of a gene or protein family with similar sequence, structure and function (see also ortholog).
4272</h4></p>
4273<h4><p>
4274PARASITISM :
4275
4276The close association of dissimilar organism in which the association proves to be harmful to at least one organism is known as parasitism.
4277</h4></p>
4278<h4><p>
4279PARTICLE :
4280
4281A very small piece of an indivisible object is known as particle.
4282</h4></p>
4283<h4><p>
4284PARTICULATE MATTER :
4285
4286The sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air, many of which are hazardous.
4287</h4></p>
4288<h4><p>
4289
4290PARTITION :
4291
4292The division of a chemical into two or more compartments in an ecosystem or body parts of an organism.
4293</h4></p>
4294<h4><p>
4295PASCAL :
4296
4297It is the unit of pressure: The pascal is the pressure which results when a force of one newton (1N), is applied evenly and perpendicularly to an area of one square metre (1 m2). Symbol is Pa,
4298</h4></p>
4299<h4><p>
4300PATERA :
4301
4302Shallow crater; scalloped, complex edge.
4303</h4></p>
4304<h4><p>
4305PATHOGEN :
4306
4307A biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host.
4308</h4></p>
4309<h4><p>
4310PEAK RING :
4311
4312A central uplift characterized by a ring of peaks rather than a single peak; peak rings are typical of larger terrestrial craters above about 50 kilometers (30 miles) in diameter.
4313</h4></p>
4314<h4><p>
4315PEDIGREE :
4316
4317The diagrammatic mapping of the genetic history of a particular family of organism is known as pedigree.
4318</h4></p>
4319<h4><p>
4320PELAGIC :
4321
4322Water coming from the part of the open sea or ocean that is not near the coast
4323</h4></p>
4324<h4><p>
4325PENUMBRA :
4326
4327The outer filamentary region of a sunspot.
4328</h4></p>
4329<h4><p>
4330PERIAPSIS :
4331
4332The point in the orbit closest to the planet.
4333</h4></p>
4334<h4><p>
4335PERIGEE :
4336
4337The point in the orbit closest to the Earth.
4338</h4></p>
4339<h4><p>
4340
4341PERIHELION :
4342
4343The point in its orbit where a planet is closest to the Sun.
4344</h4></p>
4345<h4><p>
4346PERIOD :
4347
4348The time interval occurring between two consecutive and similar phases of a regularly occurring event is known as period. The rotation of Earth is the time taken to complete one revolution is an example of period.
4349</h4></p>
4350<h4><p>
4351PERIPHERAL :
4352
4353The external devices like printers, disk drives, display monitors, keyboards, mouse, etc. that are attached to a computer are known as peripherals.
4354</h4></p>
4355<h4><p>
4356PERMAFROST :
4357
4358Soil that stays in a frozen state for more than two years in a row.
4359</h4></p>
4360<h4><p>
4361PERMEABILITY :
4362
4363The ease with which water and other fluids migrate through geological strata or landfill liners.
4364</h4></p>
4365<h4><p>
4366PERTURB :
4367
4368To cause a planet or satellite to deviate from a theoretically regular orbital motion.
4369</h4></p>
4370<h4><p>
4371PETROLOGY :
4372
4373The branch of science under geology that studies the origin, occurrence, formation, structure and composition of mineral assemblages and classification of rocks is known as petrology.
4374</h4></p>
4375<h4><p>
4376Pharmacology :
4377
4378Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their interactions with the human body (or test animal). A branch of medicine.
4379</h4></p>
4380<h4><p>
4381PHOBIA :
4382
4383The anxiety disorder exhibited by a person that is related to extreme and irrational fear of simple things or social situations is known as phobias.
4384</h4></p>
4385<h4><p>
4386PHOSPHATASE :
4387
4388The enzyme that hydrolyzes esters of phosphoric acid by removing phosphate group are known as phosphatase.
4389</h4></p>
4390<h4><p>
4391
4392PHOSPHODIESTER BOND :
4393
4394A phosphate group joined with the adjacent carbons through easter linkages is known as phosphodiester bond.
4395</h4></p>
4396<h4><p>
4397PHOTOLYSIS :
4398
4399A chemical process by which molecules are broken down into smaller units through the absorption of light.
4400</h4></p>
4401<h4><p>
4402PHOTOSPHERE :
4403
4404The visible surface of the Sun; the upper surface of a convecting layer of gases in the outer portion of the sun whose temperature causes it to radiate light at visible wavelengths; sunspots and faculae are observed in the photosphere.
4405</h4></p>
4406<h4><p>
4407PHOTOSYNTHESIS :
4408
4409A process in green plants and some bacteria during which light energy is absorbed by chorophyll-containing molecules and converted to chemical energy (the light reaction). During the process, carbon dioxide is reduced and combined with other chemical elements to provide the organic intermediates that form plant biomass (the dark reaction). Green plants release molecular oxygen (02), which they derive from water during the light reaction.
4410</h4></p>
4411<h4><p>
4412PHOTOVOLTAIC :
4413
4414Producing an electric current as the result of light striking a metal; the direct conversion of radiant energy into electrical energy.
4415</h4></p>
4416<h4><p>
4417PHREATIC ERUPTION :
4418
4419A volcanic eruption or explosion of steam, mud or other material that is not incandescent; this form of eruption is caused by the heating and consequent expansion of ground water due to an adjacent igneous heat source.
4420</h4></p>
4421<h4><p>
4422PHYLUM :
4423
4424The largest generally accepted groupings of animals and other living things with certain evolutionary traits.
4425</h4></p>
4426<h4><p>
4427PHYSICAL QUANTITY :
4428
4429Physical quantity has a magnitude i.e. number showing the value and a unit that it is measured in.
4430</h4></p>
4431<h4><p>
4432PHYSICS :
4433
4434The branch of science that studies matter and energy and its motion and interactions and all that is derived from it like force is known as Physics.
4435</h4></p>
4436<h4><p>
4437PHYTOPLANKTON :
4438
4439Microscopic plants that live in the water column of oceans, seas, and bodies of fresh water and are the foundation of the marine food chain.
4440</h4></p>
4441<h4><p>
4442
4443PITH :
4444
4445The soft, spongy substance consisting of parenchymatic cells present in the center of the stem in eudicots and the center of roots in monocots is known as pith.
4446</h4></p>
4447<h4><p>
4448PLAGE :
4449
4450Bright regions seen in the solar chromosphere.
4451</h4></p>
4452<h4><p>
4453PLANAR FEATURES :
4454
4455Microscopic features in grains of quartz or feldspar consisting of very narrow planes of glassy material arranged in parallel sets that have distinct orientations with respect to the grain's crystal structure.
4456</h4></p>
4457<h4><p>
4458PLANCK'S CONSTANT :
4459
4460It is the constant which decides the size of the photon, which is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. This constant also decides the limits of accuracy with which any two complementary quantities can be measured. Planck's Constant is equal to 6.62 x 10 -34 Joule seconds.
4461</h4></p>
4462<h4><p>
4463PLANCK'S LAW :
4464
4465Planck's law exactly describes the the radiation spectrum of an electromagmetic radiation at all wavelengths emitted from ablack body at temperature 'T. E=hf. (where, E= energy of photon, h= Planck's constant and f= frequency of wave.)
4466</h4></p>
4467<h4><p>
4468PLANET :
4469
4470The large, spherical body made of rocks and ice orbiting the Sun or another star is known as planet.
4471</h4></p>
4472<h4><p>
4473PLANITIA :
4474
4475Broad plains that occupy lowlands on planetary surfaces.
4476</h4></p>
4477<h4><p>
4478PLANUM :
4479
4480A plateau or high plain.
4481</h4></p>
4482<h4><p>
4483PLASMA :
4484
4485A extremely hot low-density matter in which the individual atoms are charged, even though the total number of positive and negative charges is equal, maintaining an overall electrical neutrality.
4486</h4></p>
4487<h4><p>
4488PLATE TECTONICS :
4489
4490A concept stating that the crust of the Earth is composed of crustal plates moving on the molten material below.
4491</h4></p>
4492<h4><p>
4493
4494PLUMES :
4495
4496The hot, feather-like rising gas in the atmosphere of a star or planet that is due to convection is known as plumes.
4497</h4></p>
4498<h4><p>
4499POINT SOURCE :
4500
4501An identifiable and confined discharge point for one or more water pollutants, such as a pipe, channel, vessel, or ditch.
4502</h4></p>
4503<h4><p>
4504POLARIZATION :
4505
4506A special property of light; light has three properties, brightness, color and polarization.
4507</h4></p>
4508<h4><p>
4509POLYSACCHARIDE :
4510
4511Sugars or carbohydrates made up of more than one sugar unit (monosaccharide). See 'carbohydrates' for more information.
4512</h4></p>
4513<h4><p>
4514PON :
4515
4516The structure located on the brain stem, above the medulla, below the mid brain and anterior to the cerebellum in humans and other bipeds, is known as pon.
4517</h4></p>
4518<h4><p>
4519POPULATION :
4520
4521The totality of a closely related number of individual organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same geographical area and interact with each other through sexual (or asexual for bacteria) reproduction.
4522</h4></p>
4523<h4><p>
4524POPULATION MOMENTUM :
4525
4526The impetus for continued expansion of the number of people in a country when the age structure is characterized by a large number of children. Even if birth control efforts are effective in the adult community and the number of new births per person decreases, the number of people in the country expands as the large population of children reach reproductive age.
4527</h4></p>
4528<h4><p>
4529POROSITY :
4530
4531The total volume of soil, rock, or other material that is occupied by pore spaces. A high porosity does not equate to a high permeability because the pore spaces may be poorly interconnected.
4532</h4></p>
4533<h4><p>
4534POT OF GOLD :
4535
4536A hidden treasure, many of which can be found in Reeko's Mad Scientist Lab.
4537</h4></p>
4538<h4><p>
4539POTENTIAL :
4540
4541The amount of electrification of a point with reference to some standard.
4542</h4></p>
4543<h4><p>
4544
4545POTENTIAL ENERGY :
4546
4547The mechanical energy of a body that is unused or stored, when the body is at rest is known as potential energy.
4548</h4></p>
4549<h4><p>
4550POWER :
4551
4552The amount of work carried out per second is known as power. The amount of power transmitted electrically is the product of voltage (V) with current (I).
4553</h4></p>
4554<h4><p>
4555PREBIOTIC :
4556
4557Prebiotic refers to the state of matter before life existed, but was conducive to the formation of life (the origin of life). The prebiotic 'soup' is the mixture of organic molecules in bodies of water that are thought to have spontaneous, self-assembly property for the first formation of an organic complex with self-replicating qualities.
4558</h4></p>
4559<h4><p>
4560PRECAMBRIAN :
4561
4562A geological term denoting the time in Earth history prior to 570 million years ago.
4563</h4></p>
4564<h4><p>
4565PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE :
4566
4567The belief that if a technology, chemical, physical agent, or human activity can be reasonably linked to adverse effects on human health or the environment, then controls should be implemented even if the problem or the cause-effect relationship is not fully understood; to wait for scientific certainty (or near certainty) is to court disaster.
4568</h4></p>
4569<h4><p>
4570PRESSURE :
4571
4572The application of a steady force upon another object.
4573</h4></p>
4574<h4><p>
4575PRESSURE RIDGE :
4576
4577A ridge formed by the uplift of a lava flow crust due to pressure of the flowing lava.
4578</h4></p>
4579<h4><p>
4580PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS :
4581
4582Pollutants that are pumped into our atmosphere and directly pollute the air. Examples include carbon monoxide from car exhausts and sulfur dioxide from the combustion of coal as well as nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (both solid and liquid).
4583</h4></p>
4584<h4><p>
4585PRIMARY PRODUCERS :
4586
4587Organisms that produce organic compounds from atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide, principally through the process of photosynthesis. Primary production is distinguished as either net or gross. All life on earth is directly or indirectly reliant on primary production.
4588</h4></p>
4589<h4><p>
4590PRIMARY STRUCTURE :
4591
4592The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of its amino acid components.
4593</h4></p>
4594<h4><p>
4595
4596PROKARYOTES :
4597
4598Organisms without a cell nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelles. Most are unicellular, but some prokaryotes are multicellular. The prokaryotes are divided into two domains: the bacteria and the archaea.
4599</h4></p>
4600<h4><p>
4601PROMINENCE :
4602
4603An eruption of hot gases above the photosphere of the Sun. Prominences are most easily visible close to the limb of the Sun, but some are also visible as bright streamers on the photosphere.
4604</h4></p>
4605<h4><p>
4606PROMONTORIUM :
4607
4608A cape.
4609</h4></p>
4610<h4><p>
4611PROTEIN :
4612
4613Proteins are macromolecules made from twenty different types of amino acids. Proteins constitute the active component of cells . Proteins function as enzyme in metabolism, transporters and receptors in cell membranes, hormones, antibodies, and help read, translate, and replicate the genetic information.
4614</h4></p>
4615<h4><p>
4616PROTONS :
4617
4618A positively charged subatomic particle. Protons, along with other subatomic particles called Neutrons, make up the nucleus of a atom. The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number of the element. Compare to electrons.
4619</h4></p>
4620<h4><p>
4621PSEUDOCRATER :
4622
4623A generally circular crater produced by a phreatic eruption resulting from emplacement of a lava flow over wet ground.
4624</h4></p>
4625<h4><p>
4626PSYCHOLOGY :
4627
4628The branch of science that deals with the science and study of mental life. Psycology is the only science without a specific definition.
4629</h4></p>
4630<h4><p>
4631PULSAR :
4632
4633A rotating star or a pair of stars that emit electromagnetic radiation characterized by rapid frequency and regularity is known as pulsar.
4634</h4></p>
4635<h4><p>
4636PUMICE :
4637
4638A light vesicular form of volcanic glass with a high silica content; it is usually light in color and will float on water.
4639</h4></p>
4640<h4><p>
4641PYROCLASTIC :
4642
4643Pertaining to clastic (broken and fragmented) rock material formed by volcanic explosion or aerial expulsion from a volcanic vent.
4644</h4></p>
4645
4646<h1><p>Q</h1></p>
4647<h4><p>
4648
4649
4650QUALITATIVE :
4651
4652This is scientific observation that is not based measurements and numbers.
4653</h4></p>
4654<h4><p>
4655QUANTITATIVE :
4656
4657The scientific observations that are based on measurements and numbers.
4658</h4></p>
4659<h4><p>
4660QUANTUM MECHANICS :
4661
4662The physical theory of the composition and behavior of atoms and subatomic particles; explains the duality of light as wave and particle, the existence of chemical bonds, and radioactivity.
4663</h4></p>
4664<h4><p>
4665QUANTUM THEORY :
4666
4667The theory that states that energy can only be absorbed or radiated in discrete values or quanta. Quantum theory is extended to all particles.
4668</h4></p>
4669<h4><p>
4670QUARK :
4671
4672An elementary particle that is thought to be the fundamental structural unit from which all particles are made. Up, down, strange, charm, top and bottom are six types of quarks.
4673</h4></p>
4674<h4><p>
4675QUINONE :
4676
4677An enzymatic cofactor that plays an important role in photosynthesis and respiration. More specifically, it is part of the electron transport chain in mitochondria and chloroplast membranes.
4678</h4></p>
4679
4680
4681<h1><p>R</h1></p>
4682<h4><p>
4683
4684
4685RADIAN :
4686
4687It is SI unit of plane angle. The radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of the circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle. There are 2 radians in a circle.
4688</h4></p>
4689<h4><p>
4690RADIATION :
4691
4692The heat transfer between two bodies without change in the temperature of the intervening medium is known as radiation. Radiation is also the release of energy from a source.
4693</h4></p>
4694<h4><p>
4695RADIATION BELT :
4696
4697Regions of charged particles in a magnetosphere.
4698</h4></p>
4699<h4><p>
4700RADICAL :
4701
4702Atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons on an otherwise open shell configuration. These unpaired electrons are usually highly reactive, so radicals are likely to take part in chemical reactions.
4703</h4></p>
4704<h4><p>
4705RADIO CARBON DATING :
4706
4707A radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring isotope carbon-14 to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 60,000 years.
4708</h4></p>
4709<h4><p>
4710RADIO METRIC DATING :
4711
4712A technique used to date materials based on a knowledge of the decay rates of naturally occurring isotopes, and the current abundances. It is the principal source of information about the age of the Earth and a significant source of information about rates of evolutionary change.
4713</h4></p>
4714<h4><p>
4715RADIO WAVES :
4716
4717The waves which have a frequency range of few kilo hertz to few hundred mega hertz are known as radio waves.
4718</h4></p>
4719<h4><p>
4720RADIOACTIVITY :
4721
4722The spontaneous decay of atomic nuclei is known as radioactivity. During radioactivity, aloha particles, beta-rays and gamma rays are emitted.
4723</h4></p>
4724<h4><p>
4725REACTION :
4726
4727When two or more chemicals combine to make a new chemical substance.
4728</h4></p>
4729<h4><p>
4730REALIZED NICHE :
4731
4732The ecological role that an organism plays when constrained by the presence of other competing species in its environment
4733</h4></p>
4734<h4><p>
4735
4736RECHARGE :
4737
4738A hydrologic process where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. This process usually occurs in the vadose zone below plant roots, and is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface.
4739</h4></p>
4740<h4><p>
4741RECOMBINANT DNA :
4742
4743The DNA that us created by combination of DNA sequences that do not occur naturally is known as reconbinat DNA.
4744</h4></p>
4745<h4><p>
4746RED GIANT :
4747
4748An old star that has low surface temperature and a diameter that is large relative to the Sun.
4749</h4></p>
4750<h4><p>
4751REFERENCE DOSE :
4752
4753The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's maximum acceptable oral dose (abbreviated RfD) of a toxic substance, most commonly determined for pesticides.
4754</h4></p>
4755<h4><p>
4756REFRACTION :
4757
4758The bending of a wave path, as of light or sound, at the boundary between two different mediums.
4759</h4></p>
4760<h4><p>
4761REGIO :
4762
4763Region.
4764</h4></p>
4765<h4><p>
4766REGOLITH :
4767
4768The layer of rocky debris and dust made by metoritic impact that forms the uppermost surface of planets, satellites and asteroids.
4769</h4></p>
4770<h4><p>
4771RELATIVE HUMIDITY :
4772
4773The ratio of the amount of water vapor present in a specified volume of air to the maximal amount that can be held by the same volume of air at a specified temperature and pressure.
4774</h4></p>
4775<h4><p>
4776RELATIVITY :
4777
4778The relative values of time, motion, mass and energy of a body in motion is known as relativity.
4779</h4></p>
4780<h4><p>
4781RENEWABLE RESOURCES :
4782
4783Supplies of biological organisms that can be replaced after harvesting by regrowth or reproduction of the removed species, such as seafood or timber.
4784</h4></p>
4785<h4><p>
4786
4787REPLACEMENT LEVEL :
4788
4789The number of children per woman necessary to keep population levels constant when births and deaths are considered together over time; estimated to be an average of 2.1 children for every woman.
4790</h4></p>
4791<h4><p>
4792RESIDENCE TIME :
4793
4794A broadly useful concept that expresses how fast something moves through a system in equilibrium; the average time a substance spends within a specified region of space, such as a reservoir. For example, the residence time of water stored in deep groundwater, as part of the water cycle, is about 10.000 years.
4795</h4></p>
4796<h4><p>
4797RESOLUTION :
4798
4799The amount of small detail visible in an image; low resolution shows only large features, high resolution shows many small details.
4800</h4></p>
4801<h4><p>
4802RESONANCE :
4803
4804When a body vibrates under the influence of another body having frequency equal to its own frequency its amplitude of vibrations increases to an optimum value. Such oscillations are called resonant oscillations and the phenomenon as resonance.
4805</h4></p>
4806<h4><p>
4807RESPIRATION :
4808
4809Metabolism of an individual cell, tissue, or organism that results in the release of chemical energy derived from organic nutrients.
4810</h4></p>
4811<h4><p>
4812Retina :
4813
4814The retina is a light-sensitive layer located at the back of the eye that covers about 65 percent of its interior surface. It may be described as the "screen" on which an image is formed by light that has passed into the eye via the cornea, aqueous humour, pupil, lens, then the hyaloid and finally the vitreous humour before reaching the retina. The function of the retina is not just to be the screen onto which an image may be formed, but also to collect the information contained in that image and transmit it to the brain in a suitable form for use by the body. It contains photosensitive cells (called rods and cones) in the retina and their associated nerve fibres that convert incident light energy into signals that are then sent onto the brain along the optic nerve.
4815</h4></p>
4816<h4><p>
4817RETROGRADE :
4818
4819The rotation or orbital motion of an object in a clockwise direction when viewed from the north pole of the ecliptic; moving in the opposite sense from the great majority of solar system bodies.
4820</h4></p>
4821<h4><p>
4822REVOLUTION :
4823
4824The rotation of a planet around the Sun through 360 degrees or a full circle is known as revolution.
4825</h4></p>
4826<h4><p>
4827RHESUS FACTOR :
4828
4829The 5 antigens, namely C, c, D, E and e that are found on the surface of red blood cells is known as Rhesus factor. The antigen that is commonly referred as Rhesus factor is Rh D antigen only. It is named after the Rhesus Macaque, after discovery of the factor by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener using red blood cells from rhesus monkey.
4830</h4></p>
4831<h4><p>
4832RHYOLITE :
4833
4834Fine-grained extrusive igneous rock, commonly with phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar in a glassy groundmass.
4835</h4></p>
4836<h4><p>
4837
4838RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) :
4839
4840The biological molecule that contains long chains of nucleotide units of a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar and a phosphate is known as Ribonucleic acid. RNA is single stranded molecule with ribose, unlike DNA that is double stranded with deoxyribose. Another difference between a DNA and RNA molecule is presence of base uracil instead of thymine in RNA.
4841</h4></p>
4842<h4><p>
4843RIFT :
4844
4845A fracture or crack in a planet's surface caused by extension. On some volcanoes, subsurface intrusions are concentrated in certain directions; this causes tension at the surface and also means that there will be more eruptions in these "rift zones."
4846</h4></p>
4847<h4><p>
4848RIFT VALLEY :
4849
4850An elongated valley formed by the depression of a block of the planet's crust between two faults or groups of faults of approximately parallel strike.
4851</h4></p>
4852<h4><p>
4853RIMA :
4854
4855A fissure.
4856</h4></p>
4857<h4><p>
4858RISK ANALYSIS :
4859
4860Identifying potential issues and risks ahead of time before these were to pose cost and/ or schedule negative impacts.
4861</h4></p>
4862<h4><p>
4863RISK ASSESSMENT :
4864
4865An analytical study of the probabilities and magnitude of harm to human health or the environment associated with a physical or chemical agent, activity, or occurrence.
4866</h4></p>
4867<h4><p>
4868RISK MANAGEMENT :
4869
4870The human activity that integrates recognition of risk, risk assessment, development of strategies to manage it, and mitigation of risk using managerial resources.
4871</h4></p>
4872<h4><p>
4873ROTATION :
4874
4875The act of a mass of body moving in a circle around its axis or fixed point is known as rotation.
4876</h4></p>
4877<h4><p>
4878R-SELECTED :
4879
4880Species with a reproductive strategy to produce many offspring, each of whom is, comparatively, less likely to survive to adulthood.
4881</h4></p>
4882<h4><p>
4883RUMINANT :
4884
4885Any hooved animal that digests its food in two steps, first by eating the raw material and regurgitating a semi-digested form known as cud, then eating (chewing) the cud, a process called ruminating.
4886</h4></p>
4887<h4><p>
4888
4889RUPES :
4890
4891The term applied to scarps on planetary surfaces; many scarps are thought to be the surface expression of faults within the crust of the planetary object.
4892</h4></p>
4893<h1><p>S</h1></p>
4894<h4><p>
4895
4896
4897SAPPING :
4898
4899A process of erosion where water leaks to the surface through the pores of rocks; as the water flows away, it slowly removes material to form valleys and channel networks.
4900</h4></p>
4901<h4><p>
4902SATELLITE :
4903
4904A natural celestial body that revolves around a larger celestial body is called satellite. For example, the Moon is a satellite of Earth.
4905</h4></p>
4906<h4><p>
4907SCALAR :
4908
4909A quantity that can be defined only by its magnitude like energy, temperature is known as scalar.
4910</h4></p>
4911<h4><p>
4912SCARP :
4913
4914A line of cliffs produced by faulting or erosion; a relatively straight, clifflike face or slope of considerable linear extent, breaking the general continuity of the land by separating surfaces lying at different levels.
4915</h4></p>
4916<h4><p>
4917SCLERACTINIAN CORALS :
4918
4919Stony or hard corals responsible for the very existence of the reef. As living animals, they provide habitats for many other organisms. The breakdown of their skeletons during calcium-carbonate accretion and especially after death provides material for redistribution and consolidation into the reef framework.
4920</h4></p>
4921<h4><p>
4922SCOPULUS :
4923
4924A lobate or irregular scarp.
4925</h4></p>
4926<h4><p>
4927SEA OF SERINITY :
4928
4929The maria on the Moon's nearside known as Mare Serenitiatis.
4930</h4></p>
4931<h4><p>
4932SEA OF TRANQUILITY :
4933
4934Also known as Mare Tranquillitatis, was the landing site of Apollo 11 on the Moon on 20th July 1969.
4935</h4></p>
4936<h4><p>
4937SECOND :
4938
4939It is SI unit of time. The second is defined as the duration of exactly 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom at a temperature of 0 K
4940</h4></p>
4941<h4><p>
4942SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS :
4943
4944Pollutant not directly emitted but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere. Examples include ozone, formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight; NO2, formed as NO combines with oxygen in the air; and acid rain, formed when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water.
4945</h4></p>
4946<h4><p>
4947
4948SECONDARY BATTERY :
4949
4950A battery that can be recharged.
4951</h4></p>
4952<h4><p>
4953SECONDARY STRUCTURE :
4954
4955Short repetitive stuctural elements in protein chains (polypeptides) that form helices (alpha helix), extended sheets (beta sheets) or random coils.
4956</h4></p>
4957<h4><p>
4958SELECTIVE BREEDING :
4959
4960The process of developing a cultivated breed over time.
4961</h4></p>
4962<h4><p>
4963SEMI MAJOR AXIS :
4964
4965One-half of the longest dimension of an ellipse.
4966</h4></p>
4967<h4><p>
4968SHATTER CONE :
4969
4970Striated conical fracture surfaces produced by meteorite impact into fine-grained, brittle rocks such as limestone.
4971</h4></p>
4972<h4><p>
4973SHEPHERD SATELLITE :
4974
4975A satellite that constrains the extent of a planetary ring through gravitational forces.
4976</h4></p>
4977<h4><p>
4978SHIELD :
4979
4980Any of several extensive regions where ancient Precambrian crystalline rocks are exposed at the Earth's surface.
4981</h4></p>
4982<h4><p>
4983SHIELD VOLCANO :
4984
4985A volcano in the shape of a flattened dome, broad and low, built by flows of very fluid lava.
4986</h4></p>
4987<h4><p>
4988SHOCK METAMORPHISM :
4989
4990The production of irreversible chemical or physical changes in rocks by a shock wave generated by impact, or detonation of high-explosive or nuclear devices.
4991</h4></p>
4992<h4><p>
4993SIDERIAL :
4994
4995Of, relating to, or expressed in relation to stars or constellations.
4996</h4></p>
4997<h4><p>
4998
4999SIDERIAL ROTATION :
5000
5001Rotation time measured with respect to the fixed stars rather than the Sun or body orbited.
5002</h4></p>
5003<h4><p>
5004SIDEROPHILE ELEMENTS :
5005
5006This phrase literally means iron-loving elements. It includes Iridium, Osmium, Platinum and Plladium, which are found in the metal-rich interiors of chemically segregated asteroids and planets; consequently, these elements are extremely rare on Earth's surface
5007</h4></p>
5008<h4><p>
5009SILICATE :
5010
5011A rock or mineral whose structure is dominated by bonds of silicon and oxygen atoms (ie. olivine).
5012</h4></p>
5013<h4><p>
5014SINKS :
5015
5016Habitats that serve to trap or otherwise remove chemicals such as plant nutrients, organic pollutants, or metal ions through natural processes.
5017</h4></p>
5018<h4><p>
5019SINUS :
5020
5021A bay.
5022</h4></p>
5023<h4><p>
5024SINUS VENOSUS :
5025
5026The large quadrangular cavity that is present before the atrium on the venous side of the chordate heart, is known as sinus venosus.
5027</h4></p>
5028<h4><p>
5029SMOG :
5030
5031A kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a combination of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area and is caused by a mixture of smoke and sulphur dioxide.
5032</h4></p>
5033<h4><p>
5034SNOWBALL EARTH :
5035
5036Hypothesis that proposes that the Earth was entirely covered by ice in part of the Cryogenian period of the Proterozoic eon, and perhaps at other times in the history of Earth
5037</h4></p>
5038<h4><p>
5039SOLAR CYCLE :
5040
5041The approximately 11-year, quasi-periodic variation in the frequency or number of solar active events.
5042</h4></p>
5043<h4><p>
5044SOLAR FLARE :
5045
5046The sudden violent explosion on the surface of the Sun above the complex active regions of photosphere is known as solar flare.
5047</h4></p>
5048<h4><p>
5049
5050SOLAR NEBULA :
5051
5052The large cloud of gas and dust from which the Sun and planets condensed 4.6 billion years ago.
5053</h4></p>
5054<h4><p>
5055SOLAR SYSTEM :
5056
5057The Sun and the nine planets namely Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, along with their 60 moons, the asteroid belt, the comets and Kuiper belt is known as the Solar System.
5058</h4></p>
5059<h4><p>
5060SOLAR WIND :
5061
5062A tenuous flow of gas and energetic charged particles, mostly protons and electrons -- plasma -- which stream from the Sun; typical solar wind velocities are almost 350 kilometers (217 miles) per second.
5063</h4></p>
5064<h4><p>
5065SORPTION :
5066
5067The physical or chemical linkage of substances, either by absorption or by adsorption.
5068</h4></p>
5069<h4><p>
5070SOURCE ROCK :
5071
5072A rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will generate oil or gas.
5073</h4></p>
5074<h4><p>
5075SOUTHERN BLOTTING :
5076
5077The procedure in which DNA restriction fragments are transferred from agarose gel to a nitrocellulose filter, where the denatured DNA is hybridized to a radioactive probe. This process is also known as Southern Hybridization.
5078</h4></p>
5079<h4><p>
5080SPATTER CONE :
5081
5082A low, steep-sided cone built up from fluid pyroclasts coating the surface around a vent.
5083</h4></p>
5084<h4><p>
5085SPECIATION :
5086
5087The formation of two or more genetically distinct groups of organisms after a division within a single group or species. A group of organisms capable of interbreeding is segregated into two or more populations, which gradually develop barriers to reproduction.
5088</h4></p>
5089<h4><p>
5090SPECIES RICHNESS :
5091
5092A type of approach to assessing biodiversity that examines the distribution of all resident terrestrial vertebrates: amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
5093</h4></p>
5094<h4><p>
5095SPECIES-YEARS :
5096
5097A way to measure extinction rate. There is approximately one extinction estimated per million species-years. This means that if there are a million species on Earth, one would go extinct every year, while if there was only one species, it would go extinct in one million years.
5098</h4></p>
5099<h4><p>
5100
5101SPECIFIC GRAVITY :
5102
5103The ratio of the density of a body to the density of water, the latter being taken as unity.
5104</h4></p>
5105<h4><p>
5106SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY :
5107
5108The amount of heat, measured in calories, required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one Celsius degree.
5109</h4></p>
5110<h4><p>
5111SPECTRORADIOMETER :
5112
5113A device that measures the amount of reflected or radiated energy from a surface in two or more wavelengths.
5114</h4></p>
5115<h4><p>
5116SPECTRUM :
5117
5118The distribution of wavelengths and frequencies.
5119</h4></p>
5120<h4><p>
5121SPEED OF LIGHT :
5122
5123Light speed equals 299,792,458 meters/second (186,000 miles/second). Einstein's Theory of Relativity implies that nothing can go faster than the speed of light.
5124</h4></p>
5125<h4><p>
5126SPICULES :
5127
5128The grass-like patterns of gas seen in the solar atmosphere.
5129</h4></p>
5130<h4><p>
5131STARCH :
5132
5133The major complex carbohydrate of caloric value from plant products. Starch is a polymer made of thousands of glucose units.
5134</h4></p>
5135<h4><p>
5136STATIC ELECTRICITY :
5137
5138Describes the situation where objects carry a charge at rest and interactions between them.
5139</h4></p>
5140<h4><p>
5141STATISTICS :
5142
5143The mathematical procedure to describe probabilities and the random or non-random distribution of matter or occurrence of events.
5144</h4></p>
5145<h4><p>
5146STEM CELL :
5147
5148Stem cells are specialized cells of animals and plants that have the ability to grow and divide by mitosis. Cell division results in self-regeneration as well as differentiation. This means that stem cells can maintain their characteristic as stem cells (self-regeneration), but also change into a different cell type (differentiation).
5149</h4></p>
5150<h4><p>
5151
5152stem cells :
5153
5154Stem cells are found in many different organs and tissues of the body, including bone marrow, liver and skin. Adult stem cells are able to divide and form a few types of cell. For example, blood stem cells, usually extracted from bone marrow can become red blood cells or white blood cells.
5155</h4></p>
5156<h4><p>
5157STERADIAN :
5158
5159It is SI unit of solid angle. The steradian is defined as the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere of radius r by a portion of the surface of the sphere having an area r2. There are 4 steradians on a sphere.
5160</h4></p>
5161<h4><p>
5162STISHOVITE :
5163
5164A dense, high-pressure phase of quartz that has so far been identified only in shock-metamorphosed, quartz-bearing rocks from meteorite impact craters.
5165</h4></p>
5166<h4><p>
5167STOCK :
5168
5169In ecological cycles and models, the amount of a material in a certain medium or reservoir.
5170</h4></p>
5171<h4><p>
5172STOMATA :
5173
5174Tiny openings or pores, found mostly on the under-surface (epidermis) of a plant leaf, and used for gas exchange.
5175</h4></p>
5176<h4><p>
5177STRATIGRAPHIC RECORD :
5178
5179Sequences of rock layers. Correlating the sequences of rock layers in different areas enables scientists to trace a particular geologic event to a particular period.
5180</h4></p>
5181<h4><p>
5182STRATOSPHERE :
5183
5184The cold region of a planetary atmosphere above the convecting regions (the troposphere), usually without vertical motions but sometimes exhibiting strong horizontal jet streams.
5185</h4></p>
5186<h4><p>
5187SUBDUCTION :
5188
5189The process in which one plate is pushed downward beneath another plate into the underlying mantle when plates move towards each other.
5190</h4></p>
5191<h4><p>
5192SUBLIME :
5193
5194Sublimation occurs when a substance changes directly from a solid to a gas without becoming liquid.
5195</h4></p>
5196<h4><p>
5197SUCCESSION :
5198
5199A fundamental concept in ecology that refers to the more or less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community.
5200</h4></p>
5201<h4><p>
5202
5203SULCUS :
5204
5205Subparallel furrows and ridges.
5206</h4></p>
5207<h4><p>
5208SULFUR DIOXIDE :
5209
5210A colorless, extremely irritating gas or liquid (SO2), used in many industrial processes, especially the manufacture of sulfuric acid. In the atmosphere it can combine with water vapor to form sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain.
5211</h4></p>
5212<h4><p>
5213SULFURIC ACID :
5214
5215A heavy, corrosive, oily, dibasic strong acid H2SO4 that is colorless when pure; it is a vigorous oxidizing and dehydrating agent.
5216</h4></p>
5217<h4><p>
5218SUNSPOT :
5219
5220An area seen as a dark spot on the photosphere of the Sun. Sunspots are concentrations of magnetic flux, typically occurring in bipolar clusters or groups. They appear dark because they are cooler than the surrounding photosphere.
5221</h4></p>
5222<h4><p>
5223SUPER CONDUCTIVITY :
5224
5225The flow of electricity without any resistance at certain temperatures near absolute zero in certain temperatures is known as super conductivity.
5226</h4></p>
5227<h4><p>
5228SUPERIOR PLANETS :
5229
5230The planets Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are superior planets because their orbits are farther from the Sun than Earth's orbit.
5231</h4></p>
5232<h4><p>
5233SYNAPSIS :
5234
5235When crossing over occurs during the pairing of homologous chromosome pairs during prophase of the first meiotic division is known as synapsis.
5236</h4></p>
5237<h4><p>
5238SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT RADIUS :
5239
5240The orbital radius at which the satellite's orbital period is equal to the rotational period of the planet. A synchronous satellite with an orbital inclination of zero (same plane as the planet's equator) stays fixed in the sky from the perspective of an observer on the planet's surface. These orbits are commonly used for communications satellites.
5241</h4></p>
5242<h4><p>
5243SYNCHRONOUS ROTATION :
5244
5245A satellite's rotational period is equal to its orbital period; this causes the same side of a satellite to always face the planet. Synchronous rotation occurs when a planet's gravity produces a tidal bulge in its satellite. The gravitational attraction and bulge acts like a torque, which slows down the satellite until it reaches a synchronous rotation.
5246</h4></p>
5247<h4><p>
5248SYNERGISM :
5249
5250The result obtained with the help of two agents that work together which could not have been possible by independent agents is known as synergism.
5251</h4></p>
5252<h4><p>
5253
5254SYNGAMY :
5255
5256The sexual reproduction by the union of gametes or fertilization is known as syngamy.
5257</h4></p>
5258<h4><p>
5259SYNTENY :
5260
5261The state where two or more genes are located on the same chromosome even thought there may or may not be any demonstrable linkage between them is known as synteny.
5262</h4></p>
5263<h4><p>
5264SYNTHETIC-APERTURE RADAR :
5265
5266SAR is a side-looking imaging system that uses the Doppler effect to sharpen the effective resolution in the cross-track direction.
5267</h4></p>
5268<h1><p>T</h1></p>
5269<h4><p>
5270
5271
5272TAQ POLYMERASE :
5273
5274The DNA polymerase isolated from the bacterium Therrnus aquaticus that is heat stabel and used in PCR is known as Taq polymerase.
5275</h4></p>
5276<h4><p>
5277TAR SANDS :
5278
5279Sandy deposits containing bitumen, a viscous petroleum-like material that has a high sulfur content.
5280</h4></p>
5281<h4><p>
5282TARGET ROCKS :
5283
5284The surface rocks that an asteroid or comet impactor smashes into in a meteorite impact event.
5285</h4></p>
5286<h4><p>
5287TATA BOX :
5288
5289The sequence of adenine-thymine rich promoter located 25-30 bp upstream of a gene that is the binding site of RNA polymerase is known as TATA box.
5290</h4></p>
5291<h4><p>
5292TAXONOMY :
5293
5294Taxonomy is the classification of organisms according to their evolutionary relationship. Taxonomic groups are organized in a hierarchical fashion from the most inclusive domains of life (archaea, bacteria, eukarya, viridae) to the lowest most specific species description (e.g. Homo sapiens).
5295</h4></p>
5296<h4><p>
5297TECTONIC :
5298
5299The deformation forces acting on a planet's crust.
5300</h4></p>
5301<h4><p>
5302TEKTITES :
5303
5304Natural, silica-rich, homogeneous glasses produced by complete melting, and dispersed as droplets during terrestrial impact events. Tektites range in color from black or dark brown to gray or green and most are spherical in shape. They have been found in four regional deposits or strewn fields on the Earth's surface: North America, Czechoslovakia, Ivory Coast and Australasia.
5305</h4></p>
5306<h4><p>
5307TEMPLATE :
5308
5309The synthesis of a complementary nucleotide strand on an RNA or single stranded DNA molecule is known as a template.
5310</h4></p>
5311<h4><p>
5312TERMINATOR :
5313
5314The dividing line between the illuminated and the unilluminated part of the moon's or a planet's disk.
5315</h4></p>
5316<h4><p>
5317TERMINATOR CODON :
5318
5319The three mRNA sequences (UGA,UAG,UAA) that do not code for an amino acid are known as terminator codons. These codons also known as 'stop codon' are a signal to the end of protein synthesis.
5320</h4></p>
5321<h4><p>
5322
5323TERRA :
5324
5325An extensive land mass.
5326</h4></p>
5327<h4><p>
5328TERTIARY STRUCTURE :
5329
5330The structure of an invididual protein chain (polypeptide) indicating the folding of the backbone (helical, extended, looping).
5331</h4></p>
5332<h4><p>
5333TESSERA :
5334
5335A tile; polygonal ground.
5336</h4></p>
5337<h4><p>
5338THEORY :
5339
5340A scientific theory is an established and experimentally verified fact or collection of facts about the world. Unlike the everyday use of the word theory, it is not an unproved idea, or just some theoretical speculation. The latter meaning of a 'theory' in science is called a hypothesis.
5341</h4></p>
5342<h4><p>
5343THERMAL GRADIENT :
5344
5345The rate at which the there is change in temperature with position is known as thermal gradient.
5346</h4></p>
5347<h4><p>
5348THERMAL MATURATION :
5349
5350A process in which as rock layers press down on buried deposits, geothermal energy heats the peat and reduces its oxygen and hydrogen content, converting it to coal.
5351</h4></p>
5352<h4><p>
5353THERMOCLINE :
5354
5355A layer within a body of water or air where the temperature changes rapidly with depth.The thermocline varies with latitude and season: it is permanent in the tropics, variable in the temperate climates (strongest during the summer), and weak to nonexistent in the polar regions, where the water column is cold from the surface to the bottom.
5356</h4></p>
5357<h4><p>
5358THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION :
5359
5360The global density-driven circulation of the oceans.
5361</h4></p>
5362<h4><p>
5363THOLUS :
5364
5365A small domical mountain or hill.
5366</h4></p>
5367<h4><p>
5368TIDAL HEATING :
5369
5370The frictional heating of a satellite's interior due to flexure caused by the gravitational pull of its parent planet and possibly neighboring satellites.
5371</h4></p>
5372<h4><p>
5373
5374TIME :
5375
5376The fourth coordinate along with three spatial dimensions needed to specify an event is known as time.
5377</h4></p>
5378<h4><p>
5379TITAN :
5380
5381The largest moon of Saturn is known as Titan. It is the second largest moon of the Solar System after Ganymede, the moon of Jupiter.
5382</h4></p>
5383<h4><p>
5384TORQUE :
5385
5386The bodies tendency to rotate under an applied force is known as Torque.
5387</h4></p>
5388<h4><p>
5389TOTAL MAXIMUM DAILY LOAD :
5390
5391The maximal quantity of a particular water pollutant that can be discharged into a water body without violating a water quality standard.
5392</h4></p>
5393<h4><p>
5394TRAILING HEMISPHERE :
5395
5396The hemisphere that faces backwards, away from the direction of motion of a satellite that keeps the same face toward the planet.
5397</h4></p>
5398<h4><p>
5399TRAIT :
5400
5401The physical or metabolic phenotype of an organism such as red flower color and length of stem in plants and black fur or pink eye in mice. See also phenotype and genotype.
5402</h4></p>
5403<h4><p>
5404TRANSFORMER :
5405
5406A device that changes the voltage of electricity.
5407</h4></p>
5408<h4><p>
5409TRANSPIRATION :
5410
5411The evaporation of water from aerial parts of plants, especially leaves but also stems, flowers, and fruits.
5412</h4></p>
5413<h4><p>
5414TRANSPORTER :
5415
5416A membrane protein that functions as an ion channel, solute transporter, facilitator or pump to move molecules across cell membranes.
5417</h4></p>
5418<h4><p>
5419Triglycerides :
5420
5421The constituent of fat composed of glycerol and three fatty acids. Most triglycerides are obtained from food as fats or synthesized by the liver and stored in liver and fat cells (adipocytes). Triglycerides are one of three major sources of metabolic fuel (the other sources are carbohydrates and proteins) providing energy for the physiological processes of the body.
5422
5423</h4></p>
5424<h4><p>
5425TROJAN SATELLITES :
5426
5427Satellites which orbit at the Lagrangian points, 60° ahead of and 60° behind another satellite. For example, Telesto and Calypso are trojans of Saturn's satellite Tethys.
5428</h4></p>
5429<h4><p>
5430TROPHIC CASCADES :
5431
5432Occur when predators in a food chain suppress the abundance of their prey, thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation (or herbivory if the intermediate trophic level is an herbivore). Trophic cascades may also be important for understanding the effects of removing top predators from food webs, as humans have done in many places through hunting and fishing activities.
5433</h4></p>
5434<h4><p>
5435TROPHIC LEVEL :
5436
5437A feeding level within a food web.
5438</h4></p>
5439<h4><p>
5440TROPOSPHERE :
5441
5442The lower regions of a planetary atmosphere where convection keeps the gas mixed and maintains a steady increase of temperature with depth. Most clouds are in the troposphere.
5443</h4></p>
5444<h4><p>
5445TRYPSIN :
5446
5447The proteolytic enzyme that hydrolyzes peptide bonds present on the carboxyl end of the amino acids arginine and lysine is known as trypsin.
5448</h4></p>
5449<h4><p>
5450TUFF :
5451
5452The general term for consolidated pyroclastic debris.
5453</h4></p>
5454<h4><p>
5455TUMOR :
5456
5457The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5458</h4></p>
5459<h4><p>
5460TURBINE :
5461
5462A device with a rotor turned by a moving fluid, such as water, steam, gas, or wind. A turbine changes kinetic energy (energy of movement) into mechanical energy (energy in the form of mechanical power).
5463</h4></p>
5464<h4><p>
5465TYMPANIC MEMBRANE :
5466
5467The thin membrane separating the inner ear from the middle ear is known as tympanic membrane or eardrum.
5468</h4></p>
5469<h4><p>
5470TYPHLOSOLE :
5471
5472The internal fold of the intestine's inner wall is known as typhlosole.
5473</h4></p>
5474<h1><p>U</h1></p>
5475<h4><p>
5476
5477
5478UBIQUITIN :
5479
5480A small 76-amino acid, highly conserved protein found in the cytoplasm and the nucleus of all eukaryptes is called ubiquitin.
5481The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5482</h4></p>
5483<h4><p>
5484ULTRA LUMINOUS GALAXIES :
5485
5486The type of galaxy that appears too bright when observed at infrared wave lenghts is known as ultra luminous galaxies.
5487The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5488</h4></p>
5489<h4><p>
5490Ultraviolet :
5491
5492Electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths shorter than the violet end of visible light; the atmosphere of the Earth effectively blocks the transmission of most ultraviolet light.
5493The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5494</h4></p>
5495<h4><p>
5496UMBRA :
5497
5498The dark central region of a sunspot.
5499The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5500</h4></p>
5501<h4><p>
5502UNCERTAINTY :
5503
5504The fundamental law of nature which makes it impossible to know where something is and where it is going is known as uncertainty. It has a major influence on quantum theory.
5505The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5506</h4></p>
5507<h4><p>
5508UNIVERSE :
5509
5510Everything that exists is known as Universe.
5511The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5512</h4></p>
5513<h4><p>
5514UPS :
5515
5516It is abbreviation for Uninterruptible Power Supply. A back up power unit that can provide continuous power when the normal power supply is interrupted is called UPS.
5517The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5518</h4></p>
5519<h4><p>
5520UPWELLING :
5521
5522An oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient-deplete surface water.
5523The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5524</h4></p>
5525<h4><p>
5526URACIL :
5527
5528A pyrimidine base and one of four nitrogenous bases found in ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is part of UTP, the triphosphorylated nucleotide. The other three bases found in RNA are adenine, guanine, and cytosine.
5529The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5530</h4></p>
5531<h4><p>
5532URANIUM ENRICHMENT :
5533
5534A process that results in an increase in the amount of the fissionable isotope of uranium in a given mass of uranium. Used mostly for nuclear weapons, naval propulsion, and smaller quantities for research reactors.
5535The abnormal growth of cells that causes swelling or lesion is known as tumor. A tumor can be malignant or benign. One should not confuse cancer with tumor as cancer means malignant.
5536</h4></p>
5537<h4><p>
5538
5539UTERUS :
5540
5541The reproductive sex organ in the female human body that where the fetus develops during gestation is called uterus.
5542</h4></p>
5543<h4><p>
5544
5545UV RADIATION :
5546
5547Ultraviolet radiation, an invisible, high energy component of sunlight can cause skin damage including cancer.
5548</h4></p>
5549<h1><p>V</h1></p>
5550<h4><p>
5551
5552
5553VACUUM :
5554
5555It is the space that is completely devoid from any matter.
5556</h4></p>
5557<h4><p>
5558VADOSE ZONE :
5559
5560The area of the ground below the surface and above the region occupied by groundwater.
5561</h4></p>
5562<h4><p>
5563VASTITAS :
5564
5565Widespread lowlands.
5566</h4></p>
5567<h4><p>
5568VECTOR :
5569
5570The geometric object in mathematics, physics and engineering that can be defined using both magnitude/length and direction is known as vector.
5571</h4></p>
5572<h4><p>
5573VECTORS :
5574
5575Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
5576</h4></p>
5577<h4><p>
5578VELOCITY :
5579
5580The rate of change of position is called as velocity. This is a physical quantity that needs speed and direction to define it.
5581</h4></p>
5582<h4><p>
5583VENT :
5584
5585The opening in the crust through which volcanic material erupts.
5586</h4></p>
5587<h4><p>
5588Vermicomposting :
5589
5590Vermicomposting is a simple biotechnological process of composting, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a better end product. It is a mesophilic process, utilizing microorganisms and earthworms that are active at 10–32°C (not ambient temperature but temperature within the pile of moist organic material).
5591</h4></p>
5592<h4><p>
5593VIABILITY :
5594
5595The ability of an organism to complete its life cycle and survive till maturity is known as viability.
5596</h4></p>
5597<h4><p>
5598VIROID :
5599
5600The plant pathogen consisting of 250-350 nucleotides of a naked RNA molecule, whose extensive base pairing results in a nearly correct double helix is called as viroid.
5601</h4></p>
5602<h4><p>
5603
5604VIRUS :
5605
5606A microscopic infectious agent that has the ability to reproduce only in a host cell is called a virus. A virus in the world of computers is a computer program can infect a computer without the users knowledge or permission and copy itself, just like the biological agent.
5607</h4></p>
5608<h4><p>
5609VISCERA :
5610
5611The internal organs of animals and humans especially the thorax and abdominal region is known as viscera.
5612</h4></p>
5613<h4><p>
5614VISUAL CORTEX :
5615
5616One of five regions of the cerebrum processing visual information in animal brains.
5617</h4></p>
5618<h4><p>
5619VITAMINS :
5620
5621The organic compound that is required as an nutrient by an organism and is often obtained from its diet is known as vitamins. The deficiency of vitamins can cause many diseases and illness in the organism.
5622</h4></p>
5623<h4><p>
5624VOIP :
5625
5626It is the network that allows real time conversation by sending digital voice information in packet form over the Internet . It does not use the the traditional circuit committed protocol that is used by public telephone networks. VoIP stands for Voice Over Internet Protocol.
5627</h4></p>
5628<h4><p>
5629VOLATILE :
5630
5631Compounds with low melting temperatures, such as hydrogen, helium, water, ammonia, carbon dioxide and methane.
5632</h4></p>
5633<h4><p>
5634VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS :
5635
5636Organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapour pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere.
5637</h4></p>
5638<h4><p>
5639VOLCANO :
5640
5641(1) A vent in the planetary surface through which magma and associated gases and ash erupt. (2) The form or structure produced by the erupted materials.
5642</h4></p>
5643<h4><p>
5644VOLT :
5645
5646The volt is the potential difference between two points of a conduction wire carrying a constant current of one ampere (1A), when the power dissipated between these points is one watt (1W). SI derived unit of electric potential difference. Symbol V Definition of SI Unit m2.kg.s-3.A-1 Equivalent Form of SI Unit J.A-1.s-1, J.C-1, W.A-1
5647</h4></p>
5648<h4><p>
5649VOLTAGE :
5650
5651Differences in potential (or electric state) related to the electrical forces that 'push' charges through a conductor. Can be thought of as the pressure which pushes electricity through a wire.
5652</h4></p>
5653<h1><p>W</h1></p>
5654<h4><p>
5655
5656
5657WALKER CIRCULATION :
5658
5659An atmospheric circulation of air at the equatorial Pacific Ocean, responsible for creating ocean upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. This brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks.
5660</h4></p>
5661<h4><p>
5662WATERSHED :
5663
5664The area of land that drains into a lake or stream.
5665</h4></p>
5666<h4><p>
5667WATT :
5668
5669The unit of power in SI unit system is called a watt. The watt is the power which results in the production of energy at the rate of one joule per second (1 J.s-1).
5670</h4></p>
5671<h4><p>
5672WAVELENGHT :
5673
5674The distance between two peaks of a wave is known as wavelenght.
5675</h4></p>
5676<h4><p>
5677WEIGHT :
5678
5679The force on an object due to the gravitational pull of a planet or other heavenly body.
5680</h4></p>
5681<h4><p>
5682WESTERN BLOT :
5683
5684The process to detect specific proteins in a sample of tissue extract by gel electrophoresis is known as Western Blot.
5685</h4></p>
5686<h4><p>
5687WHITE DWARF :
5688
5689A whitish star of high surface temperature and low intrinsic brightness with a mass approximately equal to that of a Sun but with a density many times larger.
5690</h4></p>
5691<h4><p>
5692WHITE LIGHT :
5693
5694The light that can be seen by the human eye that is made up of seven colors is known as white light.
5695</h4></p>
5696<h4><p>
5697WOCK :
5698
5699Hard, inanimate object that you throw at a wabbit.
5700</h4></p>
5701<h4><p>
5702WORK :
5703
5704The movement of an object due to pushing or pulling is called work. There is increase in energy of the object due to work.
5705</h4></p>
5706<h1><p>X</h1></p>
5707<h4><p>
5708
5709
5710X- BAND :
5711
5712The radio frequency band that extends from 5200 to 10 900 MHz.
5713</h4></p>
5714<h4><p>
5715X- LINKED DISEASE :
5716
5717The mutation on X-chromosome that causes a genetic disease is called as X-linked disease.
5718</h4></p>
5719<h4><p>
5720X-CHROMOSOME :
5721
5722One of two sex chromosomes in higher organisms that defines the gender of the adult. In almost all sexually reproducing organisms, the X-chromosome defines female characteristics.
5723</h4></p>
5724<h4><p>
5725XENOBIOTICS :
5726
5727Molecules entering an organism that has no physiological function and is not found in an organism if not taken up by eating, breathing, or injury. The term xenobiotics is used to describe a foreign particle or molecule that is potentially dangerous or toxic.
5728</h4></p>
5729<h4><p>
5730X-RAY :
5731
5732Electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength and very high energy; x-rays have shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet light but longer wavelengths than cosmic rays.
5733</h4></p>
5734<h4><p>
5735X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY :
5736
5737The diffraction pattern seen after passing X-rays through a pure crystal substance is called X-ray crystallography.
5738</h4></p>
5739<h1><p>Y</h1></p>
5740<h4><p>
5741
5742
5743Y-CHROMOSOME :
5744
5745One of two sex chromosomes in higher organisms that defines the gender of the adult. In almost all sexually reproducing organisms, the Y-chromosome defines male characteristics.
5746</h4></p>
5747<h4><p>
5748
5749YELLOW FEVER :
5750
5751The transmission of acute viral disease by the bite of Aedes aegypti mosquito is known as yellow fever.
5752</h4></p>
5753<h4><p>
5754
5755YOLK :
5756
5757The part of an egg that helpsin feeding the embryo as it develops in an egg.
5758</h4></p>
5759<h1><p>Z</h1></p>
5760<h4><p>
5761
5762
5763Z-DNA :
5764
5765The region of DNA that has a left handed helix with alternating purines and pyrimidines that may be a site for a DNA-binding protein is known as Z-DNA. Know more on Structure of Mitochondrial DNA
5766</h4></p>
5767<h4><p>
5768ZEBRA FISH :
5769
5770The Zebra fish is one of many model organisms used in biomedical research to understand development of higher organisms, the functioning of nervous systems, and fundamental aspects of physiology and the cause of diseases.
5771</h4></p>
5772<h4><p>
5773ZODIAC :
5774
5775Twelve constellations dividing the ecliptic into approximately equal parts. Each month the Sun is in a different constellation of the zodiac.
5776</h4></p>
5777<h4><p>
5778ZOOLOGY :
5779
5780The branch of science under biology that studies the structure, function, behavior and evolution of animals is known as zoology.
5781</h4></p>
5782<h4><p>
5783ZOOPLANKTON :
5784
5785Microscopic animals that live in the water column of oceans, seas, and bodies of fresh water. The smallest zooplankton can be characterized as recyclers of water-column nutrients and often are closely tied to measures of nutrient enrichment. Larger zooplankton are important food for forage fish species and larval stages of all fish.
5786</h4></p>
5787<h4><p>
5788ZOOXANTHELLAE :
5789
5790Unicellular yellow-brown (dinoflagellate) algae which live symbiotically in the gastrodermis of reef-building coral.
5791</h4></p>
5792<h4><p>
5793ZYGOTE :
5794
5795A zygote is a fertilized egg containing two sets of chromosomes, one from the egg (oocyte) and one form the sperm. The zygote is a single cell and the result of a fusion between two gametes, an egg (female) and one sperm cell (male).
5796</h4></p>
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5847 <p>History of Science</p>
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5850 <i class="fa fa-youtube-play w3-xxlarge"></i>
5851 <p>Story of Scientific Invention </p>
5852 </a>
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5854 <i class="f fa fa-cogs w3-xxlarge"></i>
5855 <p>My Lab</p>
5856 </a>
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5859 <p>Scientific Training</p>
5860 </a>
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5862 <i class="fa fa-eye w3-xxlarge"></i>
5863 <p>Interesting Information About Science</p>
5864 </a>
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5866 <i class="fa fa-pencil w3-xxlarge"></i>
5867 <p>Scientific Competition</p>
5868 </a>
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5870 <i class="fa fa-book w3-xxlarge"></i>
5871 <p>Scientific Book</p>
5872 </a>
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5874 <i class="fa fa-search w3-xxlarge"></i>
5875 <p>Scientific Dictionary</p>
5876 </a>
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5878 <i class="fa fa-question w3-xxlarge"></i>
5879 <p>Scientific FAQ</p>
5880 </a>
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5935Scientific Training:-
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5968 <i class="fa fa-history w3-xxlarge"></i>
5969 <p>History of Science</p>
5970 </a>
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5972 <i class="fa fa-youtube-play w3-xxlarge"></i>
5973 <p>Story of Scientific Invention </p>
5974 </a>
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5977 <p>My Lab</p>
5978 </a>
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5980 <i class="fa fa-graduation-cap w3-xxlarge"></i>
5981 <p>Scientific Training</p>
5982 </a>
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5984 <i class="fa fa-eye w3-xxlarge"></i>
5985 <p>Interesting Information About Science</p>
5986 </a>
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5988 <i class="fa fa-pencil w3-xxlarge"></i>
5989 <p>Scientific Competition</p>
5990 </a>
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5992 <i class="fa fa-book w3-xxlarge"></i>
5993 <p>Scientific Book</p>
5994 </a>
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5996 <i class="fa fa-search w3-xxlarge"></i>
5997 <p>Scientific Dictionary</p>
5998 </a>
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6000 <i class="fa fa-question w3-xxlarge"></i>
6001 <p>Scientific FAQ</p>
6002 </a>
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6065 <h1>Amar Ghore Amar School </h1>
6066<marquee> <p>The Education minister said, “The entire world is almost cripple due to novel coronavirus turned to a pandemic. We need to be vigilant, adhere to hygiene and maintain social distance to protect ourselves from the horrific coronavirus outbreak.”
6067She urged the students to concentrate and memorize the classes at home broadcasting on Sangsad TV title ‘Amar Ghore Amar School‘ for sixth to tenth-grade students.
6068The classes for the sixth-grade to tenth-grade students that are taken by the skilled teachers are being broadcasted on Sangsad Television from today under the direction of Prime Minister so that the education of students cannot be harmed due to the closure of the educational institutions, she said.
6069During this, she thanked all the teachers involved in the educational activities, A2i, technician of Sangsad TV.
6070Deputy Minister of Education Mohibul Hasan Chowdhury, Secondary and Higher Education Secretary Md. Mahbub Hossain, Technical and Madrasa Education Secretary Munshi Shahabuddin Ahmed, Director General of Secondary and Higher Education Syed Golam Faruk were present.
6071Each student must attend the classes through the TV at home. The teaching program will be held from 9:00 am to 12:00 pm and 2:00 pm to 5:00 pm will be broadcasted highlights.
6072In addition, classes will be available on the ‘Amar Ghore Amar School‘ Facebook page and YouTube channel. If a student cannot attend a class, he/she can view the class through that page and channel.
6073The teacher will provide homework on the subject taught at the end of the class. For each subject, the students will complete homework on a separate date and submit it to the concerned teacher after opening the school. The number of homework will be considered as part of a continuous assessment.
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6090Story of Scientific Invention:-
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6117
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6119 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Main%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6120 <i class="a fa fa-home w3-xxlarge"></i>
6121 <p>HOME</p>
6122 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/History%20of%20Science%20page.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6123 <i class="fa fa-history w3-xxlarge"></i>
6124 <p>History of Science</p>
6125 </a>
6126 <a href="#file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Story%20of%20Scientific%20Invention.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6127 <i class="fa fa-youtube-play w3-xxlarge"></i>
6128 <p>Story of Scientific Invention </p>
6129 </a>
6130 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Lab.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6131 <i class="f fa fa-cogs w3-xxlarge"></i>
6132 <p>My Lab</p>
6133 </a>
6134 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Training.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6135 <i class="fa fa-graduation-cap w3-xxlarge"></i>
6136 <p>Scientific Training</p>
6137 </a>
6138 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Interesting%20Information%20About%20Science.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6139 <i class="fa fa-eye w3-xxlarge"></i>
6140 <p>Interesting Information About Science</p>
6141 </a>
6142 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Competition.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6143 <i class="fa fa-pencil w3-xxlarge"></i>
6144 <p>Scientific Competition</p>
6145 </a>
6146 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Book.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6147 <i class="fa fa-book w3-xxlarge"></i>
6148 <p>Scientific Book</p>
6149 </a>
6150<a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Scientific%20Dictionary.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6151 <i class="fa fa-search w3-xxlarge"></i>
6152 <p>Scientific Dictionary</p>
6153 </a>
6154 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science Factory_331340/Scientific FAQ.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6155 <i class="fa fa-question w3-xxlarge"></i>
6156 <p>Scientific FAQ</p>
6157 </a>
6158 <a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/My%20Account.html" class="w3-bar-item w3-button w3-padding-large w3-hover-black">
6159 <i class="fa fa-address-book-o w3-xxlarge"></i>
6160 <p>My Account</p>
6161 </a>
6162</nav>
6163
6164
6165
6166<!-- Page Content -->
6167<div class="w3-padding-large" id="main">
6168 <!-- Header/Home -->
6169 <header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
6170 <h1 class="w3-jumbo"><span class="w3-hide-small"></span>Science Factory</h1>
6171 <h4><p>Back to School</h4></p>
6172 </header>
6173 <p>
6174
6175 <header class="w3-container w3-padding-32 w3-center w3-black" id="home">
6176<a href="file:///C:/Users/DELL/Desktop/Science%20Factory_331340/Bangla%20page.html">
6177 <button type="button">Translate in bangla</button>
6178</a>
6179</p>
6180
6181
6182 <iframe width="420" height="315"
6183src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h48BWDeBLno?autoplay=1">
6184</iframe>
6185
6186
6187 <iframe width="420" height="315"
6188src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FtIYgc2P440">
6189</iframe>
6190
6191 <iframe width="420" height="315"
6192src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FacS2uv5QAk">
6193</iframe>
6194
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6196src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5e2s-he6Ig">
6197</iframe>
6198
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6200src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LEHR8YQNm_Q?autoplay=1">
6201</iframe>
6202
6203<iframe width="420" height="315"
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6205</iframe>
6206
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6209 <footer class="w3-content w3-padding-64 w3-text-grey w3-xlarge">
6210 <i class="fa fa-facebook-official w3-hover-opacity"></i>
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6212 <i class="fa fa-instagram w3-hover-opacity"></i>
6213 <i class="fa fa-pinterest-p w3-hover-opacity"></i>
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6216 <!-- End footer -->
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